Sparks Commentary: How the Seven Years’ War spilled over into Latin America

The Seven Years’ War was fought on five different continents. Thus, it was a massive worldwide conflict (as I argue elsewhere). It started out in the frontier of North America, but soon drew in many of the mother countries from back in Europe. From there, the conflict would then spread to West Africa, to the Indian subcontinent, and to the Philippine Islands. But it would also be fought in a couple of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies of South America. Specifically, it would be expressed there, as part of a forgotten conflict called the “Fantastic War.” This part is sometimes called the “First Cevallos expedition.” This is basically the Latin American theater of the Seven Years’ War. You could even regard it as the Seven Years’ War spilling over into Latin America. The “Fantastic War” (and this portion thereof) are mostly forgotten to history, but the conflict may have set the stage for the later Latin American wars of independence. Thus, it may behoove us to look for a moment at this forgotten (and important) conflict in this post. This will tell us much about the great European colonies in Latin America.

The captured Spanish fleet at Havana (Cuba, 1762) – during the Anglo-Spanish War

Background on European colonies in the Americas, as well as in the Philippine Islands

How long had Spain and Portugal been in the Americas? Christopher Columbus had arrived in the Americas back in 1492. Specifically, he arrived in the Caribbean, in what are now the Bahamas. As you may know, Christopher Columbus was an ethnic Italian. But he was then sailing for King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain. Thus, his arrival would symbolically mark the beginning of the Spanish colonization in the Americas. But the Portuguese arrived in Brazil eight years later. Specifically, they arrived in the year 1500. Likewise, this would symbolically mark the beginning of the Portuguese colonization of Brazil. Spain would also create a colony in the distant Philippine Islands, starting in 1565. Other European colonies would also be creating their own colonies in North America and the Caribbean. These would eventually include the British, the French, and the Dutch. Each of these three powers would eventually create a colony in the area of the Guianas, which are in South America. In North America, France would also begin to colonize Louisiana, starting in 1682. This is approximately the time at which our story begins.

French ships under attack at Martinique, 1667 – part of the Anglo-Dutch Wars

Background on some other European wars, which also spilled over into Latin America

But I may first have to backtrack somewhat. Specifically, our story actually begins with a conflict called the “Anglo-Dutch Wars.” These wars were fought primarily at sea. Perhaps partially because of this, the first two of these “Anglo-Dutch Wars” involved some fighting in the Caribbean, among many other places. Even more relevantly, the second of these “Anglo-Dutch Wars” also involved some fighting in the Guianas – which, as mentioned previously, are in South America. At the war’s end, England had to cede English Guiana to the Netherlands. Incidentally, this conflict also involved some distant fighting in West Africa – and in the East Indies. This may have some marginal relevance to our colonial story, since the East Indies also includes the aforementioned Philippine Islands. By contrast, the Third Anglo-Dutch War involved little or no fighting in Latin America. However, it did involve some further fighting in the aforementioned East Indies. Soon, the Nine Years’ War began, which France would soon be entering in 1689. Some would mark this entry as the beginning of the “Second” Hundred Years’ War. Specifically, that conflict was between England and France. Its next phase would simply be the “War of the Spanish Succession.” As the name implies, this war involved a dramatic change in the Spanish throne. This would have some important consequences for the Spanish colonies in Latin America, as you can probably imagine. This conflict also involved some additional fighting in the Caribbean. There would also be a war between Spain and Portugal in the 1730s. This conflict would soon be followed by the War of the Austrian Succession. Among other places, this would also involve some fighting in South America, as part of the “War of Jenkins’ Ear.” (More about the origins of this strange name here.)

The Battle of Almansa (Spain, 1707) – during the War of the Spanish Succession

Capture of Portobelo (Central America, 1739) – part of the “War of Jenkins’ Ear”

The Seven Years’ War soon brings an Anglo-Spanish War, and Spanish invasion of Portugal

In North America, a conflict called the “French and Indian War” began in 1754. This involved some further conflict between the British and the French in North America, especially in Canada. In 1756, it then sucked in much of the rest of Europe as well. When France declared war on Britain, this was the formal beginning of the “Seven Years’ War.” It would eventually last until 1763. Thus, if its beginning were dated to 1754, it would actually be a “Nine Years’ War.” (But I’m getting ahead of myself here.) Regardless, the war would start to have consequences for Latin America later on in the war. In January 1762, an Anglo-Spanish War soon began. This Anglo-Spanish War would soon become related to a war between Spain and Portugal, back on Europe’s “Iberian Peninsula.” Specifically, the Spanish invasion of Portugal began in May of 1762. By some reckonings, this was the opening salvo of the conflict called the “Fantastic War.” Where does this strange name come from? As Wikipedia puts it, “Because no major battles were fought in the Portuguese segment of the war, even though there were numerous movements of troops and heavy losses among the Franco-Spanish invaders, this theatre of the Seven Years' War is known in Portuguese historiography as the Fantastic War (Portuguese and Spanish: Guerra Fantástica) in the sense of phantom war, due to the successful Portuguese strategy of starving the invading Franco-Spanish army of supplies while avoiding or minimising pitched battles.” (see source)

Battle of Salvaterra de Magos – which was part of the Spanish invasion of Portugal, 1762

Another picture of the Battle of Salvaterra de Magos – Spanish invasion of Portugal, 1762

The war between Spain and Portugal soon spreads to their colonies in Latin America

By this point, both Spain and Portugal had extensive colonies in Latin America. Thus, the war soon spread to the South American continent. In September of 1762, the “first Cevallos expedition” began in South America. This was basically the Latin American theater of the Seven Years’ War. This expedition would last for some months. In November 1762, back on Europe’s “Iberian Peninsula,” the Spanish invasion of Portugal was ended. The Spaniard invaders had been turned back, and Portugal was temporarily freed. But the fighting continued in their respective South American colonies. Specifically, it would eventually be fought in what are today the nations of Uruguay and Brazil. Again, the Seven Years’ War also involved some fighting in the East Indies. It likewise involved some fighting in India and in West Africa. In February of 1763, the Treaty of Paris was signed. This formally ended the Anglo-Spanish War. It also formally ended the “Fantastic War.” But it took some time for this important news to cross the Atlantic, and to arrive in South America. Thus, the first Cevallos expedition lasted until April of 1763. By most reckonings, this ended major combat in the “Fantastic War.” Britain had been involved on the side of Portugal, while France had been involved on the side of Spain.

Portuguese militiamen in Elvas – part of the Spanish invasion of Portugal, 1763

Anglo-Portuguese bombardment of Colonia del Sacramento – Uruguay, 1763

The 1763 Treaty of Paris is soon followed by more European conflicts in Latin America

So what happened with this Treaty of Paris? And what happened with the other peace treaties that soon followed it? At the war’s end, France would cede the Caribbean islands of Tobago, Dominica, and Grenada to Britain. France also ceded Louisiana “and its North American territory west of the Mississippi River” to Spain. Spain then ceded Florida to Britain, in exchange for the return of Havana and Manila. There was another war between Spain and Portugal in the 1770s. And the American War of Independence also involved some further fighting in the Caribbean. Incidentally, it also involved fighting in Southern Africa, as well as distant India. At the war’s end, Great Britain then ceded the Caribbean island of Tobago to France. Britain also ceded West Florida and East Florida to Spain. This would have important consequences for the thirteen British colonies in North America. Incidentally, in the French Revolutionary Wars, Spain also ceded Louisiana to France. But, in the Napoleonic Wars, France (in turn) would then cede Louisiana to the United States. Incidentally, the Napoleonic Wars also saw some additional fighting in the very-distant East Indies.