Sparks Commentary: The Napoleonic Wars: A series of several coalitions and conflicts

The Napoleonic Wars lasted for twelve years, with a death toll in the millions …

The Napoleonic Wars lasted for twelve years, with a death toll in the millions. They are among the most defining conflicts in European history. But most Americans know very little about them, even though they crossed the Atlantic on more than one occasion. Most importantly, they hit the United States in the “War of 1812,” which actually ended in 1815. Thus, it might be helpful to examine the defining European conflict of the early nineteenth century. It has origins in the French Revolution, and in the life of Napoleon Bonaparte himself. He came to power some years before these wars that bear his name. Thus, an overview of the domestic “French Revolution” might be in order here, to show how it affected Napoleon … and, in so many ways, also affected the world at large.

French victory over the Prussians at the Battle of Valmy, 1792

Background on the “French Revolutionary Wars,” with the First and Second Coalitions

The French Revolution had begun back in 1789, with the famous “Storming of the Bastille.” The distant “Haitian Revolution” began two years later in 1791. And the “French Revolutionary Wars” actually broke out in 1792, with the “War of the First Coalition.” King Louis the Sixteenth and Marie Antoinette were executed soon afterwards in 1793. The “War of the First Coalition” actually ended in 1797, but these “French Revolutionary Wars” went on despite this. They included a “War of the Second Coalition,” which began in 1798. Napoleon himself took part in the 1793 Siege of Toulon, and the “Battle of 13 Vendémiaire” in 1795. In 1796, Napoleon married Joséphine de Beauharnais, and began to take part in the First Italian Campaign some days after the marriage. He also took part in the French expedition to distant Egypt and Syria, which began in 1798. In 1799, Napoleon then came to power in France, ending the domestic “French Revolution.” But the “War of the Second Coalition” went on – and, with it, the “French Revolutionary Wars” as a whole. Ironically, the wars that bear Napoleon’s name had not yet begun, even though he was now officially the ruler of France. That is, by most historical reckonings, the “War of the Second Coalition” would be better placed in the “French Revolutionary Wars” than in the “Napoleonic Wars.” However, I should acknowledge that there is still ongoing controversy about this classification today. Regardless, the “War of the Second Coalition” only ended when Britain and Napoleon’s France signed the “Treaty of Amiens” on the 25th of March 1802. Then, the larger “French Revolutionary Wars” ended just two days later, on the 27th of March 1802. Thus, these “French Revolutionary Wars” had lasted for ten years in all – a decade of bitter warfare. But the “Napoleonic Wars” were about to begin, and would last even longer – for twelve years in all.

French victory over the Austrians and Russians at the Second Battle of Zürich, 1799

The Napoleonic Wars begin in 1803, and soon include a “War of the Third Coalition”

However, I should first mention a related conflict that is sometimes neglected. That is, the First Barbary War had begun back in 1801. In this conflict, the United States, Sweden, and Sicily fought against the “Barbary Pirates” in the Mediterranean. However, the war between Britain and France was about to resume, since the truce between them was now breaking down. The British felt that the French had been breaking their end of the “Treaty of Amiens.” Thus, the British felt no obligation to honor their own end of the bargain. The British then declared war on Napoleon in 1803. This, according to the standard historical verdicts, began the actual “Napoleonic Wars” themselves. The aforementioned “Haitian Revolution” then ended in January 1804, with Napoleon recognizing the independence of Haiti. However, the French would retaliate against Haiti in the years to come – a dramatic story for another post. Back in Europe, the “First Serbian Uprising” then began in February 1804. Russia also entered the war on the side of Britain in this same year: 1804. The “War of the Third Coalition” then began in April 1805, the first such coalition in the Napoleonic Wars. It was a continuation of the two previous coalitions from the “French Revolutionary Wars.” During this conflict, the aforementioned “First Barbary War” ended in June 1805. In the following year, the “War of the Third Coalition” ended in July 1806, but the Napoleonic Wars went on despite all of this.

Naval battle of Trafalgar, 1805

War of the Fourth Coalition, with some nations switching sides in the conflict

The “War of the Fourth Coalition” began in October 1806. Napoleon was now making some Middle Eastern alliances with the Ottomans and the Persians. Thus, there was soon a war between Russia and the Ottoman Turks. It was called the “Russo-Turkish War,” and it began in December 1806. It was not Russia’s first war against the Ottoman Turks, and it would not be the last. On the 7th of July 1807, there was a “Treaty of Tilsit” between Napoleon’s France and Czar Alexander’s Russia. In this important treaty, Napoleon’s “Duchy of Warsaw” was established in Poland. The Russians also switched sides in the conflict, and were now allied with Napoleon’s France against Britain. The “War of the Fourth Coalition” ended two days later (on the 9th of July 1807), with a treaty between the French and the German-speaking Prussians – not to be confused with the Russians. The “Gunboat War” between Denmark-Norway and Great Britain began a month later in August 1807, one of the longest-lasting conflicts of the Napoleonic Wars. There was also a “Finnish War” between Russia and Sweden, and a “Dano-Swedish War” between Denmark-Norway and Sweden – both of which went from 1808 to 1809. The “Grand Duchy of Finland” was only created at the war’s end in 1809. The “Peninsular War” had begun back in May 1808, and would be another of the longest-lasting conflicts of the Napoleonic Wars. It was simply called the “Peninsular War,” because it took place on Europe’s “Iberian Peninsula.” That is, it took place in both Spain and Portugal – and, later, in nearby Southern France. Napoleon kept the Spaniards and the Portuguese so busy at home, that these nations soon lost control of their distant colonies in Latin America. Thus began the Latin American revolutions, which continued long after the Napoleonic Wars had ended. The British also sent some ground troops to fight in this “Peninsular War.” For the British, this was their army’s primary land front against Napoleon.

Battle of Trangen, 1808 – during the Dano–Swedish War of 1808-1809

War of the Fifth Coalition, which is soon followed by Napoleon’s invasion of Russia

The “War of the Fifth Coalition” began in April 1809, and then ended six months later in October 1809. Napoleon consolidated his own empire in this period. He also annulled his marriage to Joséphine de Beauharnais in January 1810, and then married Marie Louise of Austria by proxy in March 1810. The formal wedding ceremony took place in April 1810. Thus began a temporary peace between Austria and Napoleon’s France, which would be broken some years later when things had changed somewhat. (More on that later on in this post.) The Russians made peace with the British in 1810, which did not exactly please Napoleon. However, Napoleon was sufficiently pacified, when the Russians continued to enforce his “Continental System” – an embargo on all trade with Britain. And the Napoleonic Wars, including France’s war with their longtime enemies the British, continued during all of this time. This included some fighting in 1811 as well. The “Russo-Turkish War” ended in May 1812, but the American “War of 1812” began in June 1812. Napoleon then invaded Russia (also in June 1812) – one of the most important campaigns of the Napoleonic Wars. But Napoleon’s invasion of Russia would soon end in disaster for him, as he retreated during the Russian winter. This campaign officially ended in December 1812, with a resounding French defeat.

Napoleon’s retreat from Russia, 1812

War of the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon’s exile to Elba, and his escape from British captivity

The “War of the Sixth Coalition” began in March 1813. The “First Serbian Uprising” ended in October 1813, to be followed by another such uprising for a few months of 1814. The “Gunboat War” finally ended in British victory in January 1814 (after seven years), and the “Peninsular War” finally ended in British victory in April 1814 (also after seven years). These were just part of the larger “Napoleonic Wars.” The “War of the Sixth Coalition” then ended in May 1814, with Napoleon being exiled to the island of Elba. It probably seemed like the wars were finally over at this point. But Napoleon soon escaped from his British captors, and returned to his ruling France as he had before. Thus, there would be one more coalition, before the Napoleonic Wars were over.

Battle of Leipzig, 1813 – sometimes called the “Battle of the Nations”

War of the Seventh Coalition (the “Hundred Days”), and Napoleon’s 1815 defeat at Waterloo

In distant North America, the American “War of 1812” (despite its name) was ending in February 1815, after three years of fighting. But the “Neopolitan War,” primarily between Austria and Naples, began on 15 March 1815. The “War of the Seventh Coalition,” sometimes known as the “Hundred Days,” began just five days later on the 20th of March 1815. The aforementioned “Neopolitan War” ended a few months later in May 1815. Napoleon’s “Duchy of Warsaw” ended on the 9th of June 1815. The Second Barbary War was fought in that same month for just a few days. Specifically, it was fought from the 17th to the 19th of June 1815. This resulted in a United States victory over the “Barbary Pirates.” Back in Europe, the “War of the Seventh Coalition,” (or the “Hundred Days”) finally ended in July 1815. The Napoleonic Wars as a whole would end a few months later, in November 1815. Napoleon was then exiled to the island of St. Helena. He subsequently died in captivity in 1821.

Battle of Waterloo, 1815

Conclusion: The Napoleonic Wars were a series of several coalitions and conflicts …

The Napoleonic Wars had been fought all over the world. These wars actually included some naval fighting in the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean, and even South America’s “Río de la Plata.” These conflicts also involved land fighting in the Caucasus, in Europe, in North America, in South America (including French Guiana), the West Indies, Southern Africa, the Middle East, and the East Indies. Thus, it was truly a worldwide conflict. The death toll of the Napoleonic Wars ultimately involved multiple millions for each side. This makes it one of the largest conflicts in European history. The four-day “Battle of Leipzig” was the largest battle in European history until the First World War, in the twentieth century. This battle was sometimes called the “Battle of the Nations,” because of its scope.

Longwood House, Saint Helena – the site of Napoleon’s captivity

… and left their mark upon European (and world) history

Thus, the “Napoleonic Wars” had lasted for some twelve years in all. When you combine them with the “French Revolutionary Wars,” Europe had been at war, on and off, for more than twenty years. The Napoleonic Wars involved several coalitions and conflicts, which ultimately proved cataclysmic for Europe. But the war lives on in popular memory, especially in Europe. For Britain, France, and Russia, these conflicts are commemorated in popular media, from “Horatio Hornblower” to “War and Peace.” And the war left its mark upon European (and world) history.

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