Jainism and Sikhism: Two of the minority religions of India

“The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them.”

– Part III, Article 15 of the current Constitution of India – which came into force in the year 1950

India has one billion people. Thus, even the country’s minority religions can be big ones …

India has more than one billion people. Some even believe that it may have overtaken China as the most populous nation in the world. If not, it is easily still the second most populous. Thus, even the country’s minority religions can be big ones today. Hinduism, as you may know, is the largest religion in India today. Nearly 80% of the country are Hindus, according to an Indian census in 2011. The second largest religion in India today, as it turns out, is Islam. Nearly 15% of the country are Muslims. It would probably be even more, if you were to include nearby Pakistan and Bangladesh – both of which were once parts of British India, along with what is today “India.” If you do the math, these two religions alone would thus account for more than 90% of the current population of India. But what about the rest of the country? The third largest religion there is Christianity, with roughly 2% of the country. The influence of prior British colonization may help to explain this Christian segment somewhat. But here, I will be focusing on two lesser-known religions, whose very names are often unknown to many of my fellow Americans. Thus, in the interest of education, I would like to focus on Jainism and Sikhism, two of the important minority religions of India. I will start here by talking about Jainism.

Guru Nanak explaining Sikh teachings to Sadhus

How the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars changed Europe

“His majesty the king of Prussia cedes … all the territories and domains, and all territorial property of whatever kind, or by whatever title possessed, by his majesty the king of Prussia, between the Rhine and the Elbe, at the commencement of the present war … The kingdom of Westphalia shall consist of the provinces ceded by his majesty the king of Prussia, and of other states which are at present in possession of his majesty the emperor Napoleon … His majesty the king of Prussia cedes the circle of Kotbus, in Lower Lusatia, to his majesty the king of Saxony, with full right of proprietorship and sovereignty.”

– “Treaty of Tilsit, 9 July 1807” (specifically, Articles VII, VIII, and XII), between Napoleon Bonaparte of France and King Frederick William the Third of Prussia

During the French Revolution, at least 40,000 of the French people were executed by the guillotine. These eventually included King Louis the Sixteenth, and his wife Marie Antoinette. They even include a few of the Revolution’s leaders, such as Maximilien Robespierre. Eventually, the French Revolution was sucking much of the rest of Europe into the French Revolutionary Wars. At least half a million people died in this earlier conflict, which lasted for a decade. It was soon followed by the Napoleonic Wars, whose death toll proved even higher. (More about that later.) Like its predecessor, this conflict also lasted for a decade. These conflicts would be fought in Egypt, the Middle East, India, the East Indies, North America, South America, the Caribbean islands, and many of the world’s oceans and seas. But it would also involve countless battles on the European continent. The legacy of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars … has always been somewhat complicated. But it’s also extremely interesting, with many dramatic moments. Many of them shaped the course of history. Thus, this might be a good time to examine the general legacy of this period. I will try to show how these wars helped to shape Europe. But, through Europe, this conflict also affected many of Europe’s former colonies, in many different parts of the world.

Entry of Napoleon into Berlin – Prussia, 1806

The rise and fall of the “British Raj” in India

Note: This post is primarily focused on the post-1858 “British Raj” – that is, on things after the 1850s “Indian Rebellion.” For things before that, see this post. (Warning: This post contains some disturbing pictures.)

One of the most controversial topics in the entire history of the British Empire …

The war that turned India into a longtime British colony … arguably began in distant North America. It was called the “French and Indian War,” and it began in colonial Pennsylvania in 1754 – with an incident that involved George Washington. In 1756, the war soon spread to Europe, as the “Seven Years’ War” officially began. And, in 1757, the war then fatefully spread to the massive Indian subcontinent in South Asia. The war’s fighting in India is now known to history as the “Third Carnatic War.” In the First and Second Carnatic Wars (in some prior decades), the European powers had been fighting among themselves to control the Indian subcontinent. These powers had even included the French, who had some local colonization plans of their own. But the British were now determined to kick the French out of India for good. And, in 1757, the British began to do so at the fateful Battle of Plassey.

Lord Clive meeting with Mir Jafar after the Battle of Plassey, 1757

How our Founding Fathers fought the Barbary Pirates

“[The Congress shall have the power] To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations …”

– Article 1, Section 8, Paragraph 10 of the United States Constitution – ratified in 1787, during the American-Algerian War

Militarily speaking, the Founding Fathers are most famous today for fighting the British. During the American Revolution, they fought to become independent from Great Britain. But, when four of our Founding Fathers became presidents, they had to deal with the Barbary Pirates. These were a group of (mostly Muslim) pirates from distant North Africa. Many of them would capture Christians, and sell them into slavery. Thus, it’s a small wonder that the Barbary Pirates would become somewhat unpopular in America (not to mention elsewhere) as a result. This post will thus tell the forgotten story of the Barbary Wars. But, in order to understand them, we must understand the Barbary Pirates themselves. And it turns out that their story goes back for many centuries.

An Algerine pirate ship, during the prior actions of the Barbary Pirates

Why is French spoken on five different continents? (Answer: History)

Spanish and Portuguese are found mainly in the Americas today, but French is spread out

You might already know that Spanish and Portuguese both have far more native speakers than French. With 250 million native speakers, Portuguese is the fifth-most-spoken language in the world by this measure. And, with 480 million native speakers, Spanish is the second-most-spoken language in the world by this measure. (Only Mandarin Chinese has more.) Both of them attained this status by aggressive colonization in past centuries. Obviously, both of them originated in Europe, on the Iberian Peninsula – which includes both Spain and Portugal. But, outside of Europe, Spanish and Portuguese are each spoken mainly in the Americas. Portuguese has a strong presence in South America through Brazil. Spanish has a strong presence in North America through Mexico. And Spanish is, of course, spoken in Central America and South America as well – not to mention the Caribbean. With the exception of some Portuguese colonies in Africa, both are fairly rare on other non-European continents.

One group of King’s Daughters arrives at Quebec – French Canada, 1667

The “Quasi-War”: The only war between France and the United States

“There shall be a firm inviolable and universal peace, and a true and sincere friendship between His Britannick Majesty, his heirs and successors, and the United States of America; and between their respective countries, territories, cities, towns and people of every degree, without exception of persons or places.”

“It is agreed between His [Britannick] Majesty and the United States of America, that there shall be a reciprocal and entirely perfect liberty of navigation and commerce, between their respective people, in the manner, under the limitations, and on the conditions specified in the following articles.”

– Articles 1 and 11 of the Jay Treaty (signed in 1794, and proclaimed in 1796), as negotiated by ambassador John Jay under President George Washington – which angered the French enough for France to fight the “Quasi-War” with the United States

That time that the United States went to war with France (sort of)

You might already know that the American colonies rebelled against Britain, in our “Revolutionary War.” You might further know that we fought against Britain again during our “War of 1812.” In both of these wars, we were thus allied with distant France. Thus, many Americans would feel some degree of “gratitude” to France for helping us with these wars. But the situation may actually be a little more complicated. In the late eighteenth century, we fought a small (but still important) war with France on the high seas. This is a lesser-known conflict, which was between the American Revolution and the War of 1812. During this conflict, we had to make some difficult choices about whom we would choose as allies. And we had to make some equally difficult choices … about whom we would choose as our enemies. Had the war gone a little differently, our “War of 1812” might have instead been against France – and who knows what the war’s consequences would have been in that case? This had the potential to change American history, if it had been navigated a little less delicately.

Fire at Port-Royal following Samuel Argall’s attack – French Acadia, 1613

A review of Ken Burns’ “The American Revolution” (PBS)

“But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government.”

– The United States Declaration of Independence (July 4th, 1776)

My prior concerns about this series, and how my hopes for this series were restored

When I first saw Ken Burns’ prior series “The Civil War,” I was mesmerized by it. I still consider it to be among the greatest series ever made, of any kind. And, in many ways, I was looking forward to seeing Ken Burns’ coverage of the American Revolution as well. But I confess that I also had some concerns about how he would cover this massive (and important) topic. These concerns were partially stoked by his biographical film about Thomas Jefferson, which could almost be described as a hatchet job. The film had so much coverage of his slaveholding, and his relationship with Sally Hemings (both legitimate topics), that it drowned out his considerable role in drafting the Declaration of Independence. But, thankfully, my confidence in Ken Burns’ coverage was restored somewhat, when I saw his biographical film about Benjamin Franklin. This proved far more sympathetic, and gave me hope that he would cover the American Revolution in a (somewhat) more sympathetic light. Ken Burns definitely covers the slavery issues, and he also covers the comparable issues surrounding Native American involvement. Both of these receive a lot of time in this series. But he also shows that the British were willing to sacrifice Black and Native American interests to their own war aims, even if they still tended to offer a better deal to these two ethnic groups than the Patriot side did. And he shows that there were many Blacks and Native Americans who fought for the Patriot side, even if there were still far more of them who fought for the British and Loyalist side.