Some medieval pros and cons: Striking a “middle” course with the Middle Ages

Two possible extremes of the Middle Ages: romanticizing them, and demonizing them

The Middle Ages remain a source of enduring interest today, but they are also the center of a great international debate. One side seems to romanticize the Middle Ages, based on things like the chivalry and the various kinds of art. The other side seeks to demonize and dismiss the Middle Ages, based on things like the superstition and the great brutality. Few periods in European history are as hard for people in the modern West to understand as the thousand-year Middle Ages. In some ways, the Middle Ages may (in fact) be the most alien period of such length in all of Western history. But it would be a mistake to throw out the baby with the bathwater. The Middle Ages also produced some fantastic art, architecture, music, and literature – inspired by the fervent faith of the era. It also produced some great religious philosophers – such as St. Augustine, Duns Scotus, and St. Thomas Aquinas in the Christian world. Elsewhere, it also produced Maimonides in Judaism, and Avicenna and Averroes in the Islamic world. And the Middle Ages even produced some great science (more about that here) – more science than most people today might realize. Much of this was centered around the Islamic world, but some of it also came from Catholic Europe. Thus, we continue to try to come to terms with the complex history of the Middle Ages, and the relative degree of good and evil therein. Thus, this post will try to examine some of the pros and cons of the Middle Ages, and how some of them continue to affect how people today see this period.

Byzantine Church mosaics, Monreale, Sicily, late 12th century

Why does the Declaration of Independence list so many grievances?

“Whereas many of our subjects in divers parts of our colonies and plantations in North America … have at length proceeded to open and avowed rebellion, by arraying themselves in a hostile manner, to withstand the execution of the law, and traitorously preparing, ordering and levying war against us: And whereas, there is reason to apprehend that such rebellion hath been much promoted and encouraged by the traitorous correspondence, counsels and comfort of divers wicked and desperate persons within this realm: To the end therefore, that none of our subjects may neglect or violate their duty through ignorance thereof, or through any doubt of the protection which the law will afford to their loyalty and zeal, we have thought fit, by and with the advice of our Privy Council, to issue our Royal Proclamation …”

– The “Proclamation of Rebellion” by King George the Third (23 August 1775)

In the eighteenth century, Americans had strong disagreements about colonial grievances

We today remember the Declaration of Independence for its ideas, and it is right that we do so. But, surprisingly, it was most famous in its own time … for the list of colonial grievances. To the people of that time, the list of grievances was the most important part, and certainly the most interesting. The grievances addressed the fiery controversies of the day, about whether the king had broken his end of a social contract with the people. Some American Loyalists actually agreed with the idea that the king had done some terrible things to the American colonies. Many of them even agreed that, if these provocations were indeed bad enough, rebellion would indeed be justified. But they needed to be convinced that the provocations were indeed bad enough to justify this radical course of action.

Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration of Independence

Jainism and Sikhism: Two of the minority religions of India

“The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them.”

– Part III, Article 15 of the current Constitution of India – which came into force in the year 1950

India has one billion people. Thus, even the country’s minority religions can be big ones …

India has more than one billion people. Some even believe that it may have overtaken China as the most populous nation in the world. If not, it is easily still the second most populous. Thus, even the country’s minority religions can be big ones today. Hinduism, as you may know, is the largest religion in India today. Nearly 80% of the country are Hindus, according to an Indian census in 2011. The second largest religion in India today, as it turns out, is Islam. Nearly 15% of the country are Muslims. It would probably be even more, if you were to include nearby Pakistan and Bangladesh – both of which were once parts of British India, along with what is today “India.” If you do the math, these two religions alone would thus account for more than 90% of the current population of India. But what about the rest of the country? The third largest religion there is Christianity, with roughly 2% of the country. The influence of prior British colonization may help to explain this Christian segment somewhat. But here, I will be focusing on two lesser-known religions, whose very names are often unknown to many of my fellow Americans. Thus, in the interest of education, I would like to focus on Jainism and Sikhism, two of the important minority religions of India. I will start here by talking about Jainism.

Guru Nanak explaining Sikh teachings to Sadhus

How the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars changed Europe

“His majesty the king of Prussia cedes … all the territories and domains, and all territorial property of whatever kind, or by whatever title possessed, by his majesty the king of Prussia, between the Rhine and the Elbe, at the commencement of the present war … The kingdom of Westphalia shall consist of the provinces ceded by his majesty the king of Prussia, and of other states which are at present in possession of his majesty the emperor Napoleon … His majesty the king of Prussia cedes the circle of Kotbus, in Lower Lusatia, to his majesty the king of Saxony, with full right of proprietorship and sovereignty.”

– “Treaty of Tilsit, 9 July 1807” (specifically, Articles VII, VIII, and XII), between Napoleon Bonaparte of France and King Frederick William the Third of Prussia

During the French Revolution, at least 40,000 of the French people were executed by the guillotine. These eventually included King Louis the Sixteenth, and his wife Marie Antoinette. They even include a few of the Revolution’s leaders, such as Maximilien Robespierre. Eventually, the French Revolution was sucking much of the rest of Europe into the French Revolutionary Wars. At least half a million people died in this earlier conflict, which lasted for a decade. It was soon followed by the Napoleonic Wars, whose death toll proved even higher. (More about that later.) Like its predecessor, this conflict also lasted for a decade. These conflicts would be fought in Egypt, the Middle East, India, the East Indies, North America, South America, the Caribbean islands, and many of the world’s oceans and seas. But it would also involve countless battles on the European continent. The legacy of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars … has always been somewhat complicated. But it’s also extremely interesting, with many dramatic moments. Many of them shaped the course of history. Thus, this might be a good time to examine the general legacy of this period. I will try to show how these wars helped to shape Europe. But, through Europe, this conflict also affected many of Europe’s former colonies, in many different parts of the world.

Entry of Napoleon into Berlin – Prussia, 1806

The rise and fall of the “British Raj” in India

Note: This post is primarily focused on the post-1858 “British Raj” – that is, on things after the 1850s “Indian Rebellion.” Things before that will be discussed in a later post. (Warning: This post contains some disturbing pictures.)

One of the most controversial topics in the entire history of the British Empire …

The war that turned India into a longtime British colony … arguably began in distant North America. It was called the “French and Indian War,” and it began in colonial Pennsylvania in 1754 – with an incident that involved George Washington. In 1756, the war soon spread to Europe, as the “Seven Years’ War” officially began. And, in 1757, the war then fatefully spread to the massive Indian subcontinent in South Asia. The war’s fighting in India is now known to history as the “Third Carnatic War.” In the First and Second Carnatic Wars (in some prior decades), the European powers had been fighting among themselves to control the Indian subcontinent. These powers had even included the French, who had some local colonization plans of their own. But the British were now determined to kick the French out of India for good. And, in 1757, the British began to do so at the fateful Battle of Plassey.

Lord Clive meeting with Mir Jafar after the Battle of Plassey, 1757

How our Founding Fathers fought the Barbary Pirates

“[The Congress shall have the power] To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations …”

– Article 1, Section 8, Paragraph 10 of the United States Constitution – ratified in 1787, during the American-Algerian War

Militarily speaking, the Founding Fathers are most famous today for fighting the British. During the American Revolution, they fought to become independent from Great Britain. But, when four of our Founding Fathers became presidents, they had to deal with the Barbary Pirates. These were a group of (mostly Muslim) pirates from distant North Africa. Many of them would capture Christians, and sell them into slavery. Thus, it’s a small wonder that the Barbary Pirates would become somewhat unpopular in America (not to mention elsewhere) as a result. This post will thus tell the forgotten story of the Barbary Wars. But, in order to understand them, we must understand the Barbary Pirates themselves. And it turns out that their story goes back for many centuries.

An Algerine pirate ship, during the prior actions of the Barbary Pirates

Why is French spoken on five different continents? (Answer: History)

Spanish and Portuguese are found mainly in the Americas today, but French is spread out

You might already know that Spanish and Portuguese both have far more native speakers than French. With 250 million native speakers, Portuguese is the fifth-most-spoken language in the world by this measure. And, with 480 million native speakers, Spanish is the second-most-spoken language in the world by this measure. (Only Mandarin Chinese has more.) Both of them attained this status by aggressive colonization in past centuries. Obviously, both of them originated in Europe, on the Iberian Peninsula – which includes both Spain and Portugal. But, outside of Europe, Spanish and Portuguese are each spoken mainly in the Americas. Portuguese has a strong presence in South America through Brazil. Spanish has a strong presence in North America through Mexico. And Spanish is, of course, spoken in Central America and South America as well – not to mention the Caribbean. With the exception of some Portuguese colonies in Africa, both are fairly rare on other non-European continents.

One group of King’s Daughters arrives at Quebec – French Canada, 1667