Sparks Commentary: Colonial Canada: From the Seven Years’ War to the War of 1812

“An Act for making more effectual Provision for the Government of the Province of Quebec in North America …”

– Long title of the “Quebec Act, 1774” (French: Acte de Québec de 1774), as passed by the British Parliament – remembered by the United States as one of the “Intolerable Acts”

How do Canadians remember the conflicts between the English, the French, and the Americans? As it turns out, the Canadians remember these conflicts somewhat differently than we do. They were a crucible for Canada, as they were for the United States – and its various colonial predecessors. Canada stayed a colony for a lot longer than we did, so there are at least three major conflicts during its colonial history. These conflicts are (in order) the Seven Years’ War, the American War of Independence, and the “War of 1812” (as it is usually called). Some of these conflicts are more often remembered in Canada than in the United States. One of these wars still creates controversy in Canada today, more than two centuries later. Thus, this might be a good time to talk about Colonial Canada, and how it was shaped by the trials of its early wars.

Engraving from the Battle of the Plains of Abraham – Quebec, 1759

Background on the French colony in Canada, and how it was conquered by the British

Canada had been a French colony since 1534. It was called “New France,” and it obviously was French-speaking at that time. Time does not permit me to cover the two centuries of French rule in their Canadian colony. Thus, let me note that in 1754, a war broke out in the British colonies of North America. It was at Jumonville Glen, in what is today the American state of Pennsylvania. Acting on orders from higher up, George Washington (then a British soldier) ambushed the French and their Native American allies at this place in Pennsylvania. In Europe and Canada, this war is now known as the “Seven Years’ War,” although its beginning is more often dated to 1756. The United States also uses this term, but it is usually in reference to the larger worldwide conflict. Americans instead use the term “French and Indian War” to refer to the North American part of that conflict. Nonetheless, Canada uses the term “Seven Years’ War” to refer to every portion (including their own). It was indeed a worldwide war. It was fought from the West Indies, South America, and Europe … to West Africa, distant India, and the Philippine Islands. But it began here in North America, with the Battle of Jumonville Glen. And, most relevantly for our story, the war would soon be fought in Canada as well. During this war, the English-speaking British invaded Canada, and won a victory over Colonial “New France” at the Plains of Abraham. This battle excites enough interest in Canada today, that there has been a board game about it (called “Quebec 1759”), if that tells you anything. 1759 was indeed a decisive year in Canadian history, mainly because of this “Battle of the Plains of Abraham.” This battle soon led to the surrender of Canada, which was eventually formalized in the 1763 Treaty of Paris that ended the war.

Battle of the Plains of Abraham – Quebec, 1759

The “Seven Years’ War” is followed by the American War of Independence

In the United States today, there is ongoing controversy about the later “American Civil War.” In part, this is because some contemporary Americans have ancestors on the one side, while some have ancestors on the other side. In a similar way, the “Seven Years’ War” continues to excite ongoing controversy in Canada today. The English Canadians have ancestors on the one side, while the French Canadians have ancestors on the other side. If you’ve ever wondered why some French Canadians want French-speaking Quebec to secede from Canada as they do, you would do well to study the “Seven Years’ War.” From that point on, the English speakers from the British Isles would become the dominant group in Canada, and started to colonize Canada for themselves. When the American War of Independence broke out in 1775, Benjamin Franklin was sent on a diplomatic mission there, to convince Canada to join the American Revolution against Britain. It probably seemed like this was possible, given that many French speakers still resented British rule. But they were likewise suspicious of the English-speaking Americans, and thus stayed on the British side. The “Quebec Act [of] 1774” is now known in America as one of the “Intolerable Acts,” but it was much appreciated in Canada at the time – and since. In part, this was because it gave more territory to the Canadians, and the Americans didn’t like that. There was also a clause in America’s 1781 “Articles of Confederation” about Canada. The relevant portion said that “Canada acceding to this confederation, and adjoining in the measures of the United States, shall be admitted into, and entitled to all the advantages of this Union; but no other colony shall be admitted into the same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine States.” (Source: Article XI) Obviously, this admission never happened, so Canada nonetheless remained British. (And obviously, the Americans declared their independence in 1776.)

Invasion of Canada, 1775 – during the American War of Independence

Comments on how Canadians remember the American War of Independence

Canadians remember the American Revolution somewhat differently than does the United States. Even the name is different, since we call it the “American Revolutionary War.” But, like the British, the Canadians instead tend to call it the “American War of Independence.” The war would see some Americans fighting for the rebels (now known as the “Patriots”), and others fighting for the Loyalist side. The Canadians were strongly affiliated with the Loyalist side. There was an invasion of Canada by the Patriot side in 1775. On the American side, the leaders of this invasion included Benedict Arnold, who would later be remembered in the United States as the ultimate “traitor.” But, in this invasion, he was still fighting on the “Patriot” side. The invasion failed, but it is nonetheless remembered in Canada with some concern. They also remember it, among other things, as the first time that English Canadians and French Canadians fought side by side in a mutual defense of Canada. The Canadians also remember “Butler’s Rangers,” a Canadian outfit that fought ferociously for the British. Time does not permit me to cover the politics of the pro-British Loyalists, since I cover that subject in another blog post. Suffice it to say here that, after the 1783 Treaty of Paris, the American Loyalist population was somewhat unpopular in the brand-new United States. Thus, many of the Loyalists fled to certain other parts of the British Empire, including the West Indies. The now-unpopular Benedict Arnold went to the British Isles. But many other American Loyalists would instead flee to Canada, and become a major influence there. This is part of why the Canadians see the war so differently than Americans do.

A soldier in Butler’s Rangers, a major Canadian outfit during the American Revolution

The “War of 1812” was a big deal for Canada, and the war is strongly remembered there

The American Revolution is mainly remembered in Canada as being the birth date of its eventually-to-be-powerful southern neighbor. Thus, it doesn’t enjoy the glory (or excite the interest) of some of Canada’s other wars there. In stark contrast to this, the “War of 1812” does enjoy continuing glory in Canada, in the same way that the American Revolution does in America. It is remembered as the founding conflict of Canada, where they again defended themselves against the American invader. The “War of 1812” was one important part of the larger “Napoleonic Wars.” Thus, Canadians remember the North American “War of 1812” … in a similar way to how the British remember the Napoleonic Wars. As mentioned earlier, the war saw an invasion of Canada, and other battles on the Canadian border. It even involved the Battle of Lake Erie in 1813, which was in the “Great Lakes” region that was between the two countries. The war began at sea (in the Atlantic) over British “impressment,” or the conscription (or drafting) of American sailors into the Royal Navy. Even stalwart Canadian histories like “Canada: A People’s History” acknowledge this with some sorrow. Nonetheless, this is remembered as another time when English Canadians and French Canadians fought alongside each other against the American invader. It is remembered for battles like Queenston Heights, which was in Upper Canada. Back in Europe, the British cornered Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815. They thus forced Napoleon to abdicate the throne of France for the second and final time four days later. Thus, the British government back in London suddenly lost all interest in “impressing” American sailors into the Royal Navy. Thus, the British finally made peace with the Americans at Ghent (in what is today Belgium) in 1815. The “War of 1812,” despite its name, was also ending in that same year: 1815. The war was important for the United States, but it was a watershed for Canada. By Canadian accounts, the war pushed the Canadian colonies further away from the United States, and closer to Britain. They would remain a stalwart British colony until the Canadian provinces finally confederated in 1867. And, even after the “Dominion of Canada” was born in that year, they continued to support Britain in the Boer War, the First and Second World Wars, and the Korean War (among other conflicts). Only in the twentieth century, in 1982, would the British Parliament lose most of its remaining jurisdiction over Canada.

Battle of Queenston Heights – Upper Canada, 1812

Battle of Lake Erie – Great Lakes (between the United States and Canada), 1813

Conclusion: The colonial years in Canada were a defining period in Canadian history

Thus, the colonial years in Canada helped to determine its future affiliations. One could argue that Canada has two mother countries, which are Britain and France. This era was a crucial period in Canada’s relationship with both of its mother countries, and for the strongly-connected relationship between English Canadians and French Canadians. It was likewise a turning point in Canada’s relationship with its southern neighbor, and affected some of its later border disputes, in places like Oregon and Alaska. (Although these, thankfully, were settled peacefully.) Incidentally, the Alaska boundary dispute goes back to 1821, when Alaska was still controlled by the Russian Empire. The United States thus inherited the Russians’ dispute with Britain, when it then purchased Alaska from the Russians in 1867 – the now-famous year of “Canadian confederation.” The Alaska boundary dispute would later be settled in 1903, and Alaska would eventually become an American state in 1959 – the last one, except for Hawaii. Of course, Canada would also be allied with the United States in many of these later wars, and hasn’t fought against the Americans since 1815. In many ways, the shooting wars of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were thus a defining period for Canada, and left their mark upon Canadian life. We can still feel the effects of this period today.

Footnote to this blog post: