History of Antarctica: From the earliest explorers to the 21st century

“Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only. There shall be prohibited, inter alia, any measure of a military nature, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military manoeuvres, as well as the testing of any type of weapon. The present Treaty shall not prevent the use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful purpose.”

– Article I of the Antarctic Treaty (1 December 1959)

The earliest Antarctic explorers, the first sighting of Antarctica, and the first landing there

As early as antiquity itself, it was postulated that there was a vast continent (then called “Terra Australis”) in the far south of the globe. It was actually in the second century AD that Marinus of Tyre coined the term “Antarctic,” which basically means “opposite of the Arctic Circle.” As Wikipedia puts it, “The rounding of the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn in the 15th and 16th centuries proved that Terra Australis Incognita (‘Unknown Southern Land’), if it existed, was a continent in its own right. In 1773, James Cook and his crew crossed the Antarctic Circle for the first time. Although he discovered new islands, he did not sight the continent itself. It is believed that he came as close as 240 km (150 mi) from the mainland.” (Source: Their page on the “History of Antarctica”) In January 1820, there was a Russian expedition, which was led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev. Due to the number of birds flying there, he believed that land must be close. But it was not until ten months later that the continent itself was finally sighted. On 17 November 1820, an American sealer named Nathaniel Palmer became the first to sight Antarctica. It may have been over a year later that an English-born American captain named John Davis, another sealer, set foot on the ice. It was the first landing on the continent of Antarctica.

Russian admiral Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, who led an early expedition in the region

A review of “Baruch Spinoza” (audiobook)

In 1656, Baruch Spinoza was excommunicated, from the Jewish community into which he was born. He had taught some doctrines that offended the Jewish elders – and so was punished with ostracism, exile, and various “curses” (as they saw it). Nonetheless, he is now seen as one of the most important Jewish philosophers of the “Age of Enlightenment.” He has often been admired by various poets and romantics, as well as by scientists like Albert Einstein. Why is this? Who is Baruch Spinoza, and what were his contributions? These are the questions addressed by the audiobook that I’m here undertaking to review.

Philosophy posts by time, place, and topic

Here is a sort of “table of contents” for my philosophical posts:

By philosophical topics:

Philosophy generally

Political philosophy specifically

Ethics and morality

Economics

By audiobook topics:

Political thought audiobooks

Philosophy audiobooks

Economic thought audiobooks

Investment audiobooks

Religions audiobooks

Science & discovery audiobooks

American history audiobooks

By periods:

Ancient philosophy (see Ancient Greek philosophy)

Medieval philosophy (see the Middle Ages)

Renaissance philosophy (see the Renaissance)

17th century philosophy (see also 17th century and Enlightenment philosophy)

18th century philosophy (see also 18th century and Enlightenment philosophy)

19th century philosophy (see also 19th century)

20th century philosophy (see also 20th century)

21st century philosophy

By geographic regions:

Ancient Greek philosophy

Roman philosophy (see Italian philosophy)

British philosophy

French philosophy

German philosophy

Italian philosophy

American philosophy (see also the Constitution)

Eastern philosophy

By religions:

Religions generally

Jewish history

Christian history

Muslim history

Eastern religions

By political and economic systems:

Fascism

Communism

Marxism

Socialism

Democracy (see the Constitution)

Free markets

In defense of Western culture (and our Western heritage)

“Ipsa scientia potestas est.” (“Knowledge itself is power.”)

– Francis Bacon, in his “Meditationes Sacrae” (1597), with the quotation often shortened to “Scientia potestas est” (“Knowledge is power”)

People today are inclined to reject Western culture, absolutely and indiscriminately. But I believe that it is still relevant today. In particular, there is a Western heritage of free inquiry and pursuit of truth. This is the aspect of Western culture that I will most focus on today.

Francis Bacon

Of course, rationality has been found in all cultures, past and present – and one could argue that the earliest science came to us from Mesopotamia. But it made particularly great advances among the Ancient Greeks – famous for their early philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. The Ancient Greeks also produced some great mathematicians and scientists, who advanced our understanding of nature. The greatest city-state among the Ancient Greeks was Athens, now famous as the birthplace of democracy. Thus, the name “Athens” has sometimes been used as a metaphor to describe the Western heritage of free inquiry and rational thinking. I recognize that the word “rationality” has sometimes been used to describe reason in contrast with the empirical evidence of one’s senses. But, in this post, I will generally use the term “rationality” to include both logic and empirical evidence, both of which are foundational to doing valid science.

Constantine, the first Roman emperor to embrace Christianity

A review of “World War I” (audiobook)

I should preface this review by saying that I’ve examined a number of other histories of World War One. For example, I watched PBS’s 6-hour series “The Great War,” made for their American Experience series. And, as you might expect from this, PBS does indeed focus on the American experience of this great conflict. Prior parts of the conflict are therein discussed mainly through the experiences of American soldiers, who enlisted in various European armies. I’ve also watched CBS’s 10-hour series “World War One,” made back in 1964. Thankfully, CBS gives a pretty decent overview of the war, although they do have a disproportionate focus on the American experience of that war. And, most importantly, I saw the BBC’s 17-hour series “The Great War,” also made in 1964. This latter series even interviewed some of the veterans of that war. Thus, this is the best television overview of the war. It may even be one of the finest military history documentaries ever made. Thus, I’ve seen a number of other histories of World War One.

Spies, nukes, and communists: The complicated legacy of the Cold War

The Cold War affected both sides of the twentieth century’s greatest conflict, in every region of the world. These included largely neutral areas stretching from Latin America and the Middle East … to South Asia and Indonesia. Some of the ripple effects come from the Soviet war in Afghanistan, the establishment of the modern state of Israel, and the conflicts between Israel and its various neighbors. All have since become particularly relevant at the time that I write this. The Eastern European theater of the Cold War also explains some of the more recent conflicts in the region, such as the nineties war in Bosnia and the current war in Ukraine. Many Eastern European countries have since joined the European Union, which could likewise be considered as a sort of legacy of the Cold War period. The Cold War also influenced literature and cinema, with iconic spy movies like those of James Bond – which were popular enough to be spoofed in other franchises like “Get Smart.” There were also some post-apocalyptic themes in the era’s science fiction, including with some famous episodes of “The Twilight Zone.”

Goran Jelisić shooting a Bosniak in Brčko – Bosnian War, 1992

But the Cold War also had an effect upon our current world map, our current ideologies, and (in many ways) our current geopolitics. It involved some spilled blood in many parts of the world, the proliferation of nuclear weapons, and the rise of communist China as a world power. The glory of twentieth-century history tends to go to World War II, which arguably set the stage for the Cold War in many ways. But the Cold War may still be the most important conflict of the twentieth century. Only certain parts of the Cold War involved actual shooting therein, but there was scarcely a conflict anywhere in the world during that time that wasn’t somehow connected with the larger “Cold War.” Thus, this post will try to examine how the (First) Cold War affected us, and how we continue to deal with the ripple effects (of one sort or another) from this great international chess game. I will only be able to survey the ways that it affected us, and will have to leave out subjects like the important advances in computer technology and air power – even though they, too, are arguably an outgrowth of the “Cold War.”

A street in Kyiv following Russian missile strikes – Ukraine, 2022

Why the British remain our most important allies

“It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world … Taking care always to keep ourselves by suitable establishments on a respectable defensive posture, we may safely trust to temporary alliances for extraordinary emergencies.”

– George Washington (then the President of the United States), in his 1796 “Farewell Address”

On April 19th, 1775, shots were exchanged at Lexington and Concord, beginning America’s war for independence from Great Britain. The following year, the thirteen American colonies declared their independence from the mother country in 1776, with the British recognition of this independence coming some years later in 1783. The United States would again fight against the British Empire, in the American “War of 1812” – which actually ended in 1815. Britain would again contemplate a war with the United States during the later American Civil War – although, fortunately, this was narrowly averted by the Abraham Lincoln administration. (More about that here.) Thus, relations between the United States and the British Empire have not always been so amicable. In both of these wars, we had been allied with France, even though we had also fought the intervening Quasi-War with the French on the high seas. Later on, America was allied with both the British and the French, during the First and Second World Wars. Which of these two nations, if any, is our greatest ally? This is the question that I will focus on today.

Battle of New Orleans, 1815 – the last major battle between the British and the Americans

FDR and Churchill aboard the HMS Prince of Wales – Atlantic Charter, 1941