“♪ We’re the D-Day Dodgers, out in Italy,
Always on the vino, always on the spree.
Eighth Army skivers and their tanks,
We go to war in ties like swanks.
For we’re the D-Day Dodgers,
In sunny Italy. ♪
♪ We landed at Salerno, a holiday with pay.
Jerry brought his bands out to cheer us on the way,
Showed us the sights and gave us tea,
We all sang songs, the beer was free.
For we’re the D-Day Dodgers,
The lads that D-Day dodged. ♪
♪ Palermo and Cassino were taken in our stride,
We didn’t go to fight there, we just went for the ride.
Anzio and Sangro are just names,
We only went to look for dames,
For we’re the D-Day Dodgers,
In sunny Italy. ♪”
– “D-Day Dodgers” (1944), to the tune of “Lili Marleen” (written in 1915, but not published until 1937) – a tongue-in-cheek Canadian song about the forgotten (and then-ongoing) campaigns in Italy
How the war against Nazi Germany began long before the 1944 invasion of France …
The war against Nazi Germany began long before the 1944 invasion of France. Listening to some popular histories of World War II, you might be tempted to suppose that the war began when the Allies launched their invasion of Normandy on June 6th, 1944. But, in fact, the war began long before the famous battles fought on this great “D-Day.” This post will focus on some of the other aspects of the war against Nazi Germany, giving details on times and places that are often ignored elsewhere. To some degree, I myself have ignored them elsewhere on this blog, because I review various documentaries with more traditional focuses. Thus, I will try to address these deficiencies in this blog post, and tell a story that has sometimes been neglected – including, to some degree, by myself.
British artillery in Kamerun, Africa, 1915 (during the First World War)
Background from World War One, as experienced in Africa and the Middle East
You might already know that the Middle East is predominantly Muslim. But, surprisingly to many people, so is North Africa – which is mostly Arabic-speaking today. If you look at a map of North Africa and the Middle East, you are likely to understand why this is the case. Incidentally, Morocco was then a Spanish colony, and many other parts of Muslim North Africa were then French colonies. In the First World War, the Ottoman Empire was then ruling much of the Middle East, but saw a massive Arab Revolt financed by the British and the French. This has been dramatized in famous movies like “Lawrence of Arabia.” Nonetheless, the Ottoman Empire launched some invasions of North Africa during the First World War – and, to a lesser degree, so did the German Empire. There were also campaigns in Mesopotamia, Persia, Gallipoli, and Sinai and Palestine. But unknown to many people, there was also some fighting in many other parts of Africa during the First World War. These included many German colonies that had been colonized during the nineteenth-century “Scramble for Africa.” Specifically, in the 1880s, the Germans had gained Kamerun, which overlaps with modern-day “Cameroon.” The Germans had also gained Togoland, German South West Africa, and German East Africa. But in the 1910s, these colonies were lost in the First World War’s somewhat-scattered African campaigns. The German and Ottoman incursions into Muslim North Africa were likewise beaten back, and the Ottoman Empire disintegrated in the Middle East, to be replaced by various Arab states. There were also many Arab states in North Africa itself. This mostly continued unaltered until the next war later began.
Anglo-Indian troops – Egypt, 1916
Italian Alpini troops, 1915
Background from Italy’s involvement in World War One, and incursions into Africa
As far as Italy went, the Italian states had been unified into a single nation back in 1861. And during the aforementioned “Scramble for Africa,” the Italians had established colonies in Eritrea and Somalia in the 1880s. They had also fought one war in Ethiopia in the 1880s, and another war there in the 1890s. In 1911, they began their first incursions into what is today Libya, establishing colonies in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. This involved a brief war with Turkey there as well. During the First World War, the Italians fought on the Allied side, fighting against Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. There was fighting for them in Africa, as part of the Somaliland campaign. They also fought against the Ottoman Empire in North Africa, in the Senussi campaign. And there was a brief Italian protectorate in Albania from 1917 to 1920. But Italy was devastated by the war, which also included major fighting on what is now called the “Italian front.” It had been fought in the mountains of Northern Italy, at places like the Isonzo. In 1922, Mussolini’s Fascists then came to power in Italy. And, soon afterwards, the Italians returned to their old colonial ambitions in Africa, establishing a colony in Oltre Giuba in 1924 – later absorbed into “Italian Somaliland” in 1926. Major war crimes were committed in Libya during the next Senussi War, with Libyan genocide happening during and after this Senussi War. In 1934, Italy merged its colonies in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica into the new province of “Italian Libya.” In 1935, Italy attacked Ethiopia and gained control of it, which would later become important for the Second World War. Italy then merged its new colony of Ethiopia with Eritrea and Somalia, creating “Italian East Africa” in 1936. When the Spanish Civil War began in 1936, both Hitler and Mussolini sent aid to Franco’s Nationalists, but Mussolini’s Italy actually sent a fair number of troops to fight there – which had major consequences for Italy. Some have referred to the Spanish Civil War as a dress rehearsal for the Second World War, and this actually seems accurate. Mussolini could ill afford these wars, but fought them anyway for territory and prestige. When the Second World War began in Europe, the Germans made calculated moves to get Italy into the Nazi orbit. Thus, Mussolini soon made the fateful decision to ally with Hitler’s Germany. This would eventually prove the undoing of Fascist Italy, as I will describe later on in this post.
Italian troops in Addis Ababa – Ethiopia, 1936
Italian troops and tanks in Durrës – Albania, 1939
How the decision was made to fight in North Africa, postponing the invasion of France
The Italians fought in many places, including Yugoslavia and the Russian front (both of which involved the Germans). There was even an Italian invasion of Albania in 1939, followed by a protectorate there – another precursor to the Second World War. But the Southern Mediterranean campaigns would be affected by events in Western Europe as well. That is, the French and the British got their butts kicked in France itself, eventually leading to France surrendering to Nazi Germany. (But I’m getting ahead of myself here.) For now, suffice it to say that things went badly for the British in Norway, despite Churchill’s best efforts to get a victory there. This painfully suggested that it might be a bad idea to invade France at this early stage of the war. Thus, the stage was set for other ground conflicts on various Mediterranean islands. The next battlegrounds would be the small islands of Greece, Crete, and Malta. The Italians launched some amphibious invasions of some of these islands, but the invasions went badly for them – until, that is, the Germans sent reinforcements to help them. Now things were instead “going badly” for the British and the Free French, and for people on the ground in Greece. Some of this conflict would continue after World War II, in the form of the “Greek Civil War.” There would be postwar conflicts in Syria and Palestine. But it would be tangential to cover many of these conflicts here. For now, suffice it to say that the navies of the British, the French, and the Fascist Italians would duke it out in the Mediterranean Sea, at places like the Italian port of Taranto. Soon, the Italians sent troops to East Africa, and (sadly) France soon surrendered to Nazi Germany. There were some Free French troops who continued to fight for the Allied side, but there were also some Vichy French forces who fought for Nazi Germany. Thus, the British fought against some French fleets that took orders from Hitler’s puppet government in Vichy. The situation was getting complicated for the British.
Aftermath of the Battle of Taranto, showing a beached Italian battleship – Italy, 1940
A brief overview of the campaigns in North Africa and the Middle East
The Germans eventually sent the Afrika Korps, under General Erwin Rommel, to reinforce their Italian allies in Africa. Thus, the British felt it to be a good idea to fight the Germans in Africa instead, rather than invading France at that stage of the war. Time does not permit me to cover all of the details of these complicated North African campaigns, but suffice it to say that things went back and forth, as the various European powers fought for control of the region. For example, Italy soon lost its “Italian East Africa” colony in 1941, and then lost its “Italian Libya” colony in 1943. They also lost their protectorate in Albania in 1943. There was also fighting in East Africa more generally, and in French Equatorial Africa. To a lesser extent, there was also fighting in the Muslim Middle East – something that has often been forgotten, in regards to the Second World War. In part, it was fought by some elements of the British Empire that were a bit closer to the Middle East. That is, it was fought by groups like the Australians, the New Zealanders, and certain pro-British troops from India. But many of these troops were later withdrawn, when Imperial Japan later declared war on the British Empire. (More about that here.) The war had suddenly gotten closer to home for Australia, New Zealand, and India. Thus, although they continued to have troops in the Middle East and North Africa, many were instead sent to the India-China-Burma theater, and to the Pacific theater (closer to home for Australia and New Zealand). For the British, though, the fighting in North Africa continued to be the greatest priority on land at that time, although they also sent some troops to fight the Japanese as well. The events in the Pacific thus brought a new enemy for the British (namely, the Japanese), but they also brought a new ally: namely, the United States. The tide of the North African campaigns began to turn somewhat when the Americans entered the war, despite initial setbacks when the Americans got their butts kicked, at places like Kasserine Pass. Canada, it should be noted, did not participate in either the Middle Eastern or North African theaters of the war. However, they more than made up for it with their role in the upcoming Italian campaign, which began soon afterwards in 1943. The North African and Middle Eastern conflicts were basically over by that point, and the war in the Mediterranean now moved to Sicily and the Italian Peninsula instead.
Australian troops occupy a front line position at Tobruk – Libya, 1941
An RAF officer investigates wrecked artillery – near Habbaniya, Iraq (1941)
A brief overview of the Italian Civil War, and the campaigns in the Italian Peninsula
Although few people know it today, there was an Italian Civil War that began soon after the Allies invaded the Italian Peninsula. It started when Benito Mussolini was arrested, by Italy’s “King Victor Emmanuel III.” The Italians then signed a peace with the Allies, in the Armistice of Cassibile. But the Germans had some other ideas for their former ally, which was why the Italian Civil War raged on despite this. The Allies supported the partisan side, while the Nazis supported the fascist side. There was fighting raging all across Italy – with groups like the British, the Canadians, and the Americans on the one side; and the German Nazis on the other. Although there continued to be Italians who collaborated with the Nazis, the Germans continued to be the biggest threat to the Allied forces in Italy. On the American side, my great-great-uncle was killed in this campaign, at the Battle of Anzio Beach. Specifically, he died in a military hospital, some days after he had the misfortune to step on a land mine. He had survived the earlier campaign in North Africa, but he (unfortunately) did not survive the campaign in Italy. By 1944, the time had finally come for the Allies to invade Western France at the Battle of Normandy. But the fighting of the Italian campaign continued on long after D-Day, since fronts don’t “magically close” after another front is opened. Some refer to Western Europe as a “second front” against Nazi Germany. But when you include the Russian front, it was almost more like a third front – or even a fourth front, if you include the bombings of Germany as yet another front against the same enemy. Time does not permit me to cover these bombings here. But suffice it to say that these things all, in one way or another, contributed to the downfall of Nazi Germany – and, in the context of Fascist Italy, to the execution of Benito Mussolini in 1945. This led to the downfall of his own vicious-and-terrible government soon afterwards.
Canadian troops enter Modica – Sicily, 1943
American troops landing at Anzio Beach, where my great-great-uncle was killed – Italy, 1944
Italy suffered much from its fateful alliance with Hitler’s Germany
Africa, the Middle East, and Italy are among the most forgotten parts of World War II. The glory of the European conflict tends to go to the battles in Western Europe – in places like France, Belgium, and Holland. And, in truth, these parts of the war really are quite important. But so are the battles in the Mediterranean, in Africa, and in certain parts of the Muslim world at that time. North Africa and the Middle East were Muslim strongholds before World War II, and they continued to be Muslim strongholds during the war. Of course, they also continue to be Muslim strongholds today. They are the biggest theaters in which the Muslim world got itself involved in World War II. They didn’t really care for Westerners then, and they don’t really care for Westerners now. But, when invaded by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, they allied with other Western nations to protect themselves against the particular Western nations that were invading them. It was a matter of choosing one Western alliance over another, so it was thus an easy choice for them at that time. Obviously, the Italians suffered much in World War II from their fateful alliance with Nazi Germany – as I describe in another post. But, unlike East Germany, Italy was spared from the postwar tidal wave of communism. Thus, Italy was able to attain relative prosperity after the war – a bit like their West German neighbors to the north.
Italian partisans shot by invading Germans in Barletta – Italian Civil War, 1943
A time when the Muslim world allied with some Western nations against still others
You might wonder why I talked so much about Fascist Italy here, when I did an entire post about Fascist Italy elsewhere. (Here, if you’re interested.) The reason was because that other post tried to cover the entire 20-year history of Fascism in Italy, which began as far back as 1922. Thus, I was able to say relatively little in that post about Italy’s later involvement in World War II. This is why I wanted to delve more deeply into Imperial Italy in this post, and also cover the forgotten campaigns in Muslim North Africa and the Muslim Middle East – which greatly overlap with the wartime history of Fascist Italy. The Muslim world – along with other parts of Africa, such as Ethiopia – were also heavily (if somewhat briefly) involved in World War II, more than most people realize. Thus, I also wanted to say something about this oft-forgotten theater of the war, and how it pertains to our relations with the Muslim world today. Their relations with the German and Italian Westerners were obviously rather bad at that time, but their relations with the other Western nations were somewhat better, as they fought against a common enemy that threatened their common interests. Such cooperation between Islam and the West does not happen often in history – although there are counterexamples, like the American support for the mujahideen, in the Soviet-Afghan War. Another is the West’s military assistance to Muslim Kuwait during the 1991 Gulf War, defending them against yet another Muslim nation (Iraq). But one hopes that such cooperation will happen more often in the future, and that Islam and the West will one day be on more friendly terms.
“ ♪ Look around the mountains, through the mud and rain
You’ll find scattered crosses, some which bear no name.
Heartbreak and toil and suffering gone
The boys beneath them slumber on
For they’re the D-Day Dodgers, who stayed in Italy. ♪”
– “D-Day Dodgers” (1944), to the tune of “Lili Marleen” (written in 1915, but not published until 1937) – a Canadian song about the forgotten (and then-ongoing) campaigns in Italy
See also:
If you liked this post, you might also like:
Posts
No comments:
Post a Comment