In 1862, the Battle of Puebla was fought in Mexico. Specifically, Mexican forces defeated the invading armies of France on the 5th of May. Thus, on “Cinco de Mayo,” the anniversary of this battle is today celebrated by some Mexican Americans. This is the most famous legacy of the war today. But why did the French want to invade Mexico in the first place? What can we learn from another French intervention in Mexico, which happened in an earlier decade? And how can we understand these two French interventions in Mexico … in their broader historical context? These are the questions that I will be trying to answer today. I will try to mention other nineteenth-century wars fought by either France or Mexico. By so doing, we can achieve a greater understanding of these two interventions, their connection to the American Civil War, and the “Cinco de Mayo” holiday.
Photo of Queretaro taken during the battle there – Mexico, 1867
Background on Napoleonic France, and the then-recent independence of Mexico
Back in 1521, the mighty Aztec Empire fell to the Conquistadors. Thus, the Spaniards began to colonize “New Spain” (the predecessor of Mexico) in that same year. In France, the French Revolution later began with the storming of the Bastille in 1789. In France’s distant colony of Haiti, the Haitian Revolution broke out in 1791. The violence of the French Revolution spread out to broader Europe in 1792, when the “French Revolutionary Wars” began. The domestic French Revolution ended in 1799, with Napoleon Bonaparte’s rise to power in France. But the French Revolutionary Wars would last until 1802. In 1803, they were followed by the even bloodier Napoleonic Wars. During that conflict, the Haitian Revolution ended in Haiti’s independence from France in 1804. Other Latin American wars of independence would later follow this. These would include Brazil’s war to become independent from Portugal. And one portion of Spanish America after another became independent from Spain. Most relevantly, Mexico’s war of independence began in 1810, when Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla rang the bells of a church. Back in Europe, Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812. But Napoleon was soon defeated by the Russian winter, and by a brilliant defensive campaign on the part of the Russians. In 1815, Napoleon was defeated in Belgium, at the Battle of Waterloo. Thus, the Napoleonic Wars soon ended in Europe. But the Latin American wars of independence (including that of Mexico) would continue for years afterward. Spain briefly recognized the independence of Mexico in 1821. But the Spaniards attempted to re-conquer Mexico from 1821 to 1829. This was their last attempt to do so.
Siege of the Alhóndiga de Granaditas in Guanajuato – Mexican War of Independence, 1810
Battle of Pueblo Viejo, 1829 – part of the Spanish attempt to re-conquer Mexico
The “Pastry War,” or the first French intervention in Mexico, begins in 1838
The French Empire began its infamous conquest of Algeria in 1830. This would continue until 1847. In 1835, there was a revolt against the Mexican government in Texas. This eventually led to the creation of the independent “Republic of Texas” in 1836. (More about that here.) Also in 1836, Spain again recognized the independence of Mexico. But, this time, their recognition would be permanent. Back in 1832, the French king Louis-Philippe had received a complaint from a French pastry chef in Mexico. The pastry chef, known only as Monsieur Remontel, said that Mexican officers looted his shop in Tacubaya. At that time, Tacubaya was a town on the outskirts of Mexico City. Mexican sources contradict this account, saying that the officers only refused to pay their bills. Regardless, the shop was valued at less than 1,000 pesos. However, Monsieur Remontel demanded a compensation of 60,000 pesos. There were other complaints by Frenchmen against Mexico, but this complaint from the pastry chef was the most prominent. Thus, the upcoming war soon became known as the “Pastry War.” France was then demanding total compensations of 600,000 pesos. When Mexico refused to pay them, the French attacked Veracruz in 1838. Mexico soon declared war on France.
Episode of the Mexican Expedition – Pastry War, 1838
French troops attack Veracruz – Pastry War, 1838
But the “Pastry War” ends in 1839, and is soon followed by the Mexican-American War
The British brokered a peace between them, so French forces soon withdrew from Mexico by 1839. As Wikipedia puts it, “As part of the treaty, the Mexican government agreed to pay 600,000 pesos as damages to French citizens, while France received promises for future trade commitments in place of war indemnities.” (see source) However, these damages were never paid. This sowed the seeds of a future French war in Mexico. In 1846, the United States also declared war on Mexico, partly over control of Texas. Mexico fiercely resisted the Gringo invaders, but the American momentum was strong. Thus, the war ended in 1848 with the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo. By some accounts, Mexico lost roughly half of its territory in this peace treaty. France soon participated in the distant Crimean War from 1854 to 1856. A civil war began in Mexico in 1857. It was called the “Reform War.” Meanwhile, France began to invade Vietnam in 1858 – and, much closer to home, France fought a war with Austria in 1859. This war was partially over Italian independence. This war even helped to unify the Italian states into a single nation.
USS Saratoga, which participated in the “Reform War” in Mexico
Battle of Calpulalpan, 1860 – part of the “Reform War” in Mexico
In 1861, Mexico’s “Reform War” is followed by the second French intervention in Mexico
The “Reform War” back in Mexico ended in January of 1861. This civil war in Mexico was soon followed by another civil war in the nearby United States. When shots were fired at Fort Sumter, the American Civil War broke out in April of 1861. The Southern states, including nearby Texas, were now rebelling against Union authority. In November of 1861, there was the infamous “Trent affair” on the high seas. A United States ship stopped a British ship at gunpoint, and demanded that they hand over two Confederate diplomats who were on board. The British did so, but soon brought the news of this outrage back to Britain with them. This incident had the potential to bring Britain into the war … on the Confederate side! But President Abraham Lincoln quietly let the two Confederate diplomats go. His ambassadors privately assured the British that this would never happen again. Thus, the incident was allowed to pass. If the British had actually entered the war, this would have had a great effect upon France, and would have indirectly affected the coming intervention in Mexico. In December of 1861, the second French intervention in Mexico began. This was purportedly to collect Mexico’s debts to France, and to Great Britain and Spain. The losing side of Mexico’s recent civil war, the aforementioned “Reform War,” was then inclined to support the French. But others in Mexico were strongly opposed to the French intervention.
Battle of Puebla (Cinco de Mayo, 1862) – part of the second French intervention in Mexico
Siege of Puebla, 1863 – part of the second French intervention in Mexico
The American Civil War affects this conflict, and the French withdraw from Mexico (1867)
The French invaded Mexico, but were prevented from invading Mexico City by the Battle of Puebla in 1862. That battle’s anniversary, again, is the one celebrated as “Cinco de Mayo.” France wanted to form an alliance with the nearby Confederate States of America. However, Abraham Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation ended all possibility of the British supporting the Confederacy. Indirectly, this also made it impossible for France to support the Confederacy, since the French were reluctant to do so without British help. In 1864, France installed an Austrian archduke named “Maximilian” as Emperor of Mexico. He would now be known as “Maximilian the First.” Some would consider this puppet emperor to be the real French motive for the intervention. But guerilla warfare was now taking its toll on the French invaders. The American Civil War soon ended in 1865, with the surrender at Appomattox Courthouse. With the rebellion now wrapped up, the United States then invoked the Monroe Doctrine, not wanting a permanent French presence in the Americas. And the recent French war with Austria made European affairs seem a little more pressing to France. Emperor Maximilian was actually executed in June of 1867. And the second French intervention in Mexico ended two days later. Incidentally, nearby Canada soon became independent in July of 1867.
Battle of Miahuatlán, 1866 – part of the second French intervention in Mexico
French troops enter Mexico City, 1868 – part of the second French intervention in Mexico
The conflict is largely forgotten by both sides, but “Cinco de Mayo” commemorates them
A few years later, France faced another war much closer to home. The Franco-Prussian War broke out in 1870, and it quickly became a disaster for the French. It inadvertently hastened the process of unifying the German states into a single nation. There was now a powerful rival on the continent of Europe. By 1871, the war had ended, and Germany had been unified. The Second French Empire was now ended, and France soon had to pay indemnities to the Germans. Nonetheless, France completed its conquest of Indochina by 1887. Mexico’s “Caste War in the Yucatán” (which began back in 1847) continued until 1915. Incidentally, Mexico’s wars with the Apache (which had begun back in the 1600s) also continued until 1915. Mexico was soon embroiled in its “Great Revolution” from 1910 to 1920 – or, at least, that was the military phase. Mexico also saw its brief “Cristero War” from 1926 to 1929. France saw two World Wars much closer to home. Mexico participated in the second of these World Wars from 1942 to 1945. France lost its overseas colony in Indochina by 1954, and then lost its colony in Algeria by 1962. Both of the French interventions in Mexico, meanwhile, were largely forgotten by both sides. Only the celebrations of “Cinco de Mayo” tend to preserve its memory today. And this, in a large measure, seems to be what “Cinco de Mayo” is about.
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