Germans annex the Alsace-Lorraine region, and Germany becomes a unified nation
In 1870, France declared war on Prussia, in an attempt to assert its dominance over the continent of Europe. They soon invaded German territory, and seemed to do well for a period of some two days. But the Germans soon counterattacked, and were routing the French before too long. After some months, the German troops made it all the way to Paris, eventually causing the war to end in 1871. The Franco-Prussian War, as it is now called, had profound consequences for the continent of Europe. It enabled the Germans to annex Alsace-Lorraine, which would be a thorn in Franco-German relations during both of the upcoming world wars. And, even more importantly, it completed the process of unifying the German states into a single nation. That is, the process was completed in 1871. Some would date this as the beginning of the road to the Great War. This road would have a seminal effect upon both of the upcoming world wars. In this post, I will try to examine a series of minor wars and crises that (arguably) led up to World War One. Their effect seems to be far more than the sum of their parts, because they eventually caused Europe to explode … into the truly “Great War.”
Prussian field artillery column at Torcy – France, 1870
System of military alliances begins in Europe, amidst early conflicts in the Balkans
From 1875 to 1878, there was a “Great Eastern Crisis,” which was over the Ottoman Empire’s territories in the Balkans. This presaged some further wars in the Balkans. In 1878, there was an Austro-Hungarian campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina, another part of this same struggle. And, in 1879, there was even a defensive alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary, today called the “Dual Alliance.” Each promised support for the other, in the event of a war with Russia. In 1880 and 1881, Britain fought the First Boer War in Southern Africa. In 1881, there was a sort of alliance between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. But it proved very unpopular in Serbia. In 1882, Italy temporarily allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary. Each power promised to assist the other, if attacked by France. In 1884, there was a Berlin Conference, an agreement between the European colonial powers with respect to Africa. This was part of the “Scramble for Africa.” (More about that here.) From 1885 to 1888, there was a Bulgarian Crisis, another part of the aforementioned Balkan struggle. From 1887 to 1890, there was the “Reinsurance Treaty,” a secret diplomatic agreement between Germany and Russia. As Wikipedia puts it, “The treaty provided that both parties would remain neutral if the other became involved in a war with a third great power, with the exception of if Germany attacked France or if Russia attacked Austria-Hungary.” (Source: Their page on the “Reinsurance Treaty”) This eventually proved a disaster for the Germans.
Serbian soldiers attacking the Ottoman army at Mramor – Serbia, 1877
France allies with Russia, fights the British, and then reconciles with the British
From 1891 to 1894, a Franco-Russian alliance was negotiated. This would last through most of the Great War. In 1894 and 1895, there was a war between Japan and China, partly over their influence in Korea. It is now called the “First Sino-Japanese War.” In 1898, there was the Fashoda Incident, a brief conflict between the British and the French in the Sudan. It was part of the aforementioned “Scramble for Africa.” It eventually led to a French withdrawal from Fashoda. In 1899, there was the First Hague Conference, which tried to introduce disarmament to the region. But this ultimately failed there. From 1899 to 1902, Britain fought the Second Boer War in Southern Africa. This proved to be even more important than the first one. In 1902, there was an Anglo-Japanese alliance, the first alliance on equal terms between a Western and a non-Western power. In 1903, there was the “May Coup” in Serbia, which involved some assassinations. In 1904, there was the “Entente Cordiale,” an alliance between France and Britain. This may have helped somewhat to smooth things over between them from the earlier Fashoda Incident. In 1904 and 1905, there was the Russo-Japanese War, which was partly over which of them would control nearby Korea.
Japanese troops during the First Sino-Japanese War – East Asia, 1894
Tangier Crisis, Anglo-Russian Convention, Young Turk Revolution, and Bosnian Crisis
In 1905, there was the Tangier Crisis, sometimes called the First Moroccan Crisis. In that crisis, the Germans tried to challenge French control of Morocco. However, the Algeciras Conference of 1906 reaffirmed the French control. This worsened German relations with both the French and the British. From 1906 to 1908, there was a trade war between Serbia and Austria-Hungary. This is sometimes called the “Pig War,” or even the “Customs War.” In 1907, there was an Anglo-Russian Convention. As Wikipedia puts it, “Great Britain promised to stay out of northern Persia, and Russia recognized southern Persia as part of the British sphere of influence. Russia also promised to stay out of Tibet and Afghanistan. In exchange, London extended loans and some political support” (Source: One of their pages). There was also a Second Hague Conference in 1907. In 1908, there was the “Young Turk Revolution” in the Ottoman Empire. In this revolution, a string of assassinations forced the Sultan to “restore the Constitution, recall the Parliament, and schedule an election” (to quote another of their pages). This caused Bulgaria to declare its independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, sparking the Bosnian Crisis. This would be a particularly sensitive issue, in the ongoing lead-up to the Great War.
Declaration of the Young Turk Revolution – Ottoman Empire, 1908
Italian-Russian alliance, Agadir Crisis, Italo-Turkish War, and two Balkan Wars
In 1909, there was the “Racconigi Bargain” between Russia and Italy. Its terms included that “If Russia or Italy concluded agreements concerning Eastern Europe with another power, the other party of the agreement would also participate in such new agreement” (to quote another page). It also included that “Italy recognised that Russian interests in the Turkish Straits should be controlled by Russia. In return, Russia recognised Italian interests in Tripoli and Cyrenaica” (to quote this same page). In 1911, there was a Second Moroccan Crisis, also called the “Agadir Crisis.” When the French sent troops to their colony in Morocco, the Germans again tried to challenge this French control, even threatening warfare. But the British acted on behalf of France, so the Germans temporarily backed down. And, from 1911 to 1912, there was an Italo-Turkish War. This war created Italian colonies in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, later merged into “Italian Libya.” In 1912 and 1913, two Balkan Wars were fought. The Balkan states of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria declared war upon the Ottoman Empire. Among other things, this war saw unfortunate “ethnic cleansing” in the region. In 1912 and 1913, there was a London Conference that tried to create an independent Albania. But Serbia and Montenegro disliked this agreement somewhat. The earlier alliance between France and Russia was also modified somewhat from 1911 to 1913, with respect to the Balkans. (More about that here.)
Bulgarian forces waiting to start their assault on Adrianople – Ottoman Turkey, 1912
Liman von Sanders affair, Anglo-German arms race, assassination, major crisis, and war
There was also the “Liman von Sanders affair.” As Wikipedia puts it, “This was a crisis caused by the appointment of an Imperial German Army officer, Otto Liman von Sanders, to command the Ottoman First Army Corps guarding Constantinople and the subsequent Russian objections. In November, 1913, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Sazonov complained to Berlin that the Sanders mission was an ‘openly hostile act.’ In addition to threatening Russia's foreign trade, half of which flowed through the Turkish Straits, the mission raised the possibility of a German-led Ottoman assault on Russia's Black Sea ports, and it imperiled Russian plans for expansion in eastern Anatolia. A compromise arrangement was agreed for Sanders to be appointed to the rather less senior and less influential position of Inspector General in January 1914.[footnote] When the war came Sanders provided only limited help to the Ottoman forces.” (Source: Their page on the “Causes of World War I”) Between 1898 and 1912, there was an Anglo-German arms race – which particularly involved a naval arms race. But there was a brief Anglo-German détente, even as late as 1914. Nonetheless, by the time that the Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in 1914, the struggle between the major powers had considerable momentum. This led to the July Crisis – and, eventually, to the outbreak of the Great War itself. (More about that in another post.)
Royal Navy warships in battle formation, 1914
Conclusion: The precursors to the Great War show just how fragile the peace can be
This complex system of shifting military alliances has sometimes been blamed for sucking Europe into World War One. If there has ever been such a thing as “entangling alliances,” it is hard to think of a better example than this one. In particular, the Balkans have sometimes been referred to as the “powder keg of Europe” – as I show at this link. This was the subject of a 1962 history book called “The Guns of August,” written by Barbara W. Tuchman. This book affected the thinking of American president John F. Kennedy, during his presidency’s Cuban Missile Crisis (which was also in 1962). One hopes that nothing like the World Wars will ever be seen again. But the precursors to the Great War remind us of just how fragile the peace can be. Unstable situations can suddenly explode, and claim millions of lives before they’re ever sorted out. In the Great War, at least 15 million people were eventually killed in the bloodbath. It is hard to know whether this bloodletting could have been prevented. Nonetheless, it has been the subject of heated (and sometimes bitter) debate ever since.
Footnote to this blog post:
The causes of the Great War have been analyzed from many other perspectives. These include social causes, economic causes, and more domestic political causes. In this post, I have focused on military alliances, prior wars, and prior diplomatic crises. But I should nonetheless acknowledge that there may be merit in (at least some of) these other perspectives.
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