Wikipedia argues that Rousseau influenced the Founding Fathers …
I have often heard people claim that Rousseau “influenced” the Founding Fathers. One of my high school history teachers said this, and so have some websites. Most prominently, Wikipedia is among those who claim this. But absolutely none of these sources ever offered any convincing evidence that this is actually the case. Moreover, most of the Founding Father quotes about Rousseau are negative, casting doubt upon the idea that he “influenced” them to any significant degree (or at all, for that matter).
Statue of Rousseau on the Île Rousseau, Geneva
… arguing that he and they had “shared beliefs” about “equal[ity]” …
But first, let’s talk about what Wikipedia has said in this regard. The relevant section of their page on Jean-Jacques Rousseau starts by saying that “According to some scholars, Rousseau exercised minimal influence on the Founding Fathers of the United States, despite similarities between their ideas. They shared beliefs regarding the self-evidence that ‘all men are created equal,’ and the conviction that citizens of a republic be educated at public expense. A parallel can be drawn between the United States Constitution's concept of the ‘general welfare’ and Rousseau's concept of the ‘general will’.” (Source: Wikipedia page on “Jean-Jacques Rousseau,” section entitled “Effect on the American Revolution”)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
… and claiming parallels between their “general welfare” and his “general will”
I will save my discussion of the differences between their conceptions of “equal[ity]” for later on in this post. But it is hard to see any “parallel[s]” between “the United States Constitution's concept of the ‘general welfare’ and Rousseau's concept of the ‘general will’,” other than the fact that they both start with “general w-.” I have gone into the problems with Rousseau’s definition and conception of the “general will” in another post, so I will not repeat much of that discussion here. But suffice it to say here that this other post shows that the term “general will” is actually something of a misnomer, since it does not represent the “will” of the people at all – something that makes it drastically different from the United States Constitution. (More on that subject here.)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, later in life
They quote from Will and Ariel Durant, who together made some unsourced claims
The Wikipedia page then goes on to say that: “However, Will and Ariel Durant have opined that Rousseau had a definite political influence on America. According to them: [moving to the next paragraph] ‘The first sign of [Rousseau's] political influence was in the wave of public sympathy that supported active French aid to the American Revolution. Jefferson derived the Declaration of Independence from Rousseau as well as from Locke and Montesquieu. As ambassador to France (1785–89) he absorbed much from both Voltaire and Rousseau...The success of the American Revolution raised the prestige of Rousseau's philosophy.[footnote]’” (Source: Wikipedia page on “Jean-Jacques Rousseau,” section entitled “Effect on the American Revolution”) The Durants often included sources in their work, but gave none for the particular portions cited from their magnum opus. Thus, it would seem that the claims given here are unsupported, by either the Durants or anyone else. Moreover, the actual Founding Father quotes about Rousseau are predominantly negative, as I will show in the remainder of this post.
Will and Ariel Durant (1930), whom Wikipedia is quoting here
But John Adams said unequivocally: “I am not, however a disciple of Rousseau”
In fairness, John Adams did give some limited praise of Rousseau in 1778. Specifically, he began by asking his wife Abigail Adams: “Have you ever read J. J. Rousseau. If not, read him—your cousin Smith has him. What a difference between him and Chesterfield, and even Voltaire? But he was too virtuous for the age, and for Europe—I wish I could not say for another country.” (Source: His letter to Abigail Adams, 2 December 1778) But John Adams would also write another letter to the painter John Trumbull in 1817. In that letter, Adams said that “I am not, however a disciple of Rousseau. Your country ought to acknowledge itself more indebted to you than to any other artist, who ever existed; and I therefore heartily wish you success” (Source: His letter to John Trumbull, 1 January 1817). Unfortunately, none of the rest of this letter provides any helpful context about what led up to this remark by Adams – as you can see if you read the text of the letter here. But John Adams nonetheless made clear that he was “not, however a disciple of Rousseau.”
John Adams
John Adams, as painted by the above-mentioned John Trumbull
Adams said that Rousseau had a lot to do with the “Revolution in France” (which was true)
Back in 1790, John Adams had commented on the French Revolution, which was still going on at that time. He had said that the French Revolution had more to do with the French philosophers than either the British philosophers or the American Revolution. Specifically, Adams said in a letter at this time that “The Revolution in France could not, therefore be indifferent to me. But I have learned, by awfull experience, to rejoice with trembling. I know that Encyclopædists and Œconomists, Diderot and D’Alembert, Voltairè and Rousseau, have contributed to this great event, more than Locke, Sidney or Hoadley, and perhaps more than the American Revolution. And I own to you, I know not what to make of a republick of thirty million atheists.” (Source: His letter to Richard Price, 19 April 1790) This passage makes pretty clear that Adams disapproved of the French Revolution, since he said that “I know not what to make of a republick of thirty million atheists” – his description of the aforementioned Republic of “France.” Thus, saying that Rousseau had “contributed to this great event” seems to have been meant derisively. Specifically, John Adams seems to have been blaming Rousseau for how the French Revolution had so far gone by that time.
John Adams
James Madison said that the “project of Rousseau” was “preposterous”
Another Founding Father (James Madison) would later write a letter to the National Gazette in 1792. This letter was unsigned; but as the website of the National Archives notes, Madison “initialed his essays, including this one, in a bound volume of the National Gazette which is now in the Library of Congress” (Source: National Archives) Thus, it seems quite clear that James Madison did indeed write this letter. With that said, here is the relevant passage of the letter: “Wars may be divided into two classes; one flowing from the mere will of the government, the other according with the will of the society itself. [then the next paragraph begins] Those of the first class can no otherwise be prevented than by such a reformation of the government, as may identify its will with the will of the society. The project of Rousseau was, consequently, as preposterous as it was impotent. Instead of beginning with an external application, and even precluding internal remedies, he ought to have commenced with, and chiefly relied on the latter prescription.” (Source: James Madison’s letter “For the National Gazette, 31 January 1792”) Thus, Madison said here that “The project of Rousseau was, consequently, as preposterous as it was impotent.” This casts further doubt upon the claim that Rousseau “influenced” the Founding Fathers to any significant degree.
James Madison
John Adams said that he had “never read reasoning more absurd, [or] sophistry so gross” …
Returning now to the writings of John Adams: John Adams would later write a letter to Thomas Jefferson in 1813. In this letter, Adams said that “The Greeks in their allegorical style said that the two ladies Αριστοκρατια [aristocratia] and δημοκρατια [democratia],[footnote] always in a quarrel, disturbed every neigbourhood with their brawls. It is a fine observation of yours that ‘Whig and Torey belong to Natural History.’[footnote] Inequalities of mind and body are so established by God Almighty in his constitution of human nature that no art or policy can ever plain them down to a level. I have never read reasoning more[footnote] absurd, sophistry more gross, in proof of the Athanasian Creed, or transubstantiation, than the subtle labours of Helvetius and Rousseau to demonstrate the natural equality of mankind. Jus cuique; the golden rule; do as you would be done by; is all the equality that can be supported or defended by reason, or reconciled to common sense.” (Source: Letter to Thomas Jefferson, 13 July 1813)
Claude Adrien Helvétius, whom Adams slams above
… as the efforts of people like Rousseau to demonstrate “natural equality”
Thus, Adams had never read “reasoning more[footnote] absurd, [or] sophistry more gross” than the efforts of “Helvetius and Rousseau … to demonstrate the natural equality of mankind.” This also casts doubt upon Wikipedia’s earlier claim that Rousseau and the Founding Fathers “shared beliefs regarding the self-evidence that ‘all men are created equal’” (Source: Wikipedia page on “Jean-Jacques Rousseau,” section entitled “Effect on the American Revolution”) They seem to have understood the term “equality” in very different ways, with Adams disagreeing strongly with Rousseau’s version (as the above passage indicates).
Claude Adrien Helvétius, whom Adams slams above
John Adams also said that Rousseau made the French nation into “slaves”
In 1821, John Adams would slam both “Helvetius and Rousseau” yet again. In a letter that year, Adams said that “Helvetius and Rousseau preached to the French nation liberty, till they made them the most mechanical slaves; equality till they destroyed all equity; humanity till they became weasels, and Affrican panthers; and fraternity till they cutt one anothers throats like Roman gladiators.” (Source: Letter to Benjamin Waterhouse, 21 May 1821) Thus, Adams blamed Rousseau for making the French nation “the most mechanical slaves,” and making them “cutt one anothers throats like Roman gladiators” (among the other things mentioned above). This casts further doubt upon the idea that the Founding Fathers thought very highly of “Jean-Jacques Rousseau.”
John Adams
Conclusion: Rousseau did NOT influence the Founding Fathers
Thus, I cannot understand how anyone could claim that Rousseau “influenced” the Founding Fathers at all, let alone to any significant degree. There is no hard evidence for this claim, and a lot of hard evidence against this claim. This is a tired old myth, and does not deserve to be uncritically passed on to yet another gullible generation.
Disclaimer: If Wikipedia has changed this particular page by the time that you read this, some of this information may have become outdated. If so, please let me know with a comment below; and I will be happy to revise this blog post as needed. But even if they do so, there are plenty of other websites out there that propagate this same fairy tale. Thus, I imagine that I would still find it necessary to leave up this blog post to correct the record, even if Wikipedia makes the necessary revisions to this particular page.
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