“There shall be a firm inviolable and universal peace, and a true and sincere friendship between His Britannick Majesty, his heirs and successors, and the United States of America; and between their respective countries, territories, cities, towns and people of every degree, without exception of persons or places.”
“It is agreed between His [Britannick] Majesty and the United States of America, that there shall be a reciprocal and entirely perfect liberty of navigation and commerce, between their respective people, in the manner, under the limitations, and on the conditions specified in the following articles.”
– Articles 1 and 11 of the Jay Treaty (signed in 1794, and proclaimed in 1796), as negotiated by ambassador John Jay under President George Washington – which angered the French enough for France to fight the “Quasi-War” with the United States
That time that the United States went to war with France (sort of)
You might already know that the American colonies rebelled against Britain, in our “Revolutionary War.” You might further know that we fought against Britain again during our “War of 1812.” In both of these wars, we were thus allied with distant France. Thus, many Americans would feel some degree of “gratitude” to France for helping us with these wars. But the situation may actually be a little more complicated. In the late eighteenth century, we fought a small (but still important) war with France on the high seas. This is a lesser-known conflict, which was between the American Revolution and the War of 1812. During this conflict, we had to make some difficult choices about whom we would choose as allies. And we had to make some equally difficult choices … about whom we would choose as our enemies. Had the war gone a little differently, our “War of 1812” might have instead been against France – and who knows what the war’s consequences would have been in that case? This had the potential to change American history, if it had been navigated a little less delicately.
Fire at Port-Royal following Samuel Argall’s attack – French Acadia, 1613
Background on prior conflicts between France and the American colonies
But England and France had both been longtime colonial powers in North America. Specifically, the French began to colonize Canada back in 1534. The English soon created their temporary settlement at Jamestown in 1607, and their Pilgrims then created their permanent colony at Plymouth in 1620. Conflicts between the French and English colonies soon followed. In 1654, the English invaded the French colony of Acadia, in what is today Canada. During the Second Anglo-Dutch War, there was a brief war between England and France in the 1660s. In the 1680s and 1690s, England and France fought the Nine Years’ War. This involved “King William’s War” in North America. In the next century, France and England fought the War of the Spanish Succession in the 1700s and 1710s. This involved “Queen Anne’s War” in North America. During that war, England and Scotland had been united into the “Kingdom of Great Britain” in 1707. This conflict was soon followed by Father Rale’s War, another conflict between the British and French colonies. In the 1740s, Britain and France fought the War of the Austrian Succession. This involved “King George’s War” in North America. It was soon followed by Father Le Loutre’s War, another conflict between their respective colonies. And, most importantly, Britain and France faced each other again in the 1750s and 1760s, in the Seven Years’ War. This involved the “French and Indian War” in North America. In this war, Britain took Canada from the French. Thus, the French had often been at war with Britain and its American colonies. Thus, the American colonies had a long-standing disdain for the French. Thus, it might have been a little unexpected, when the American colonies then rebelled against British authority in 1775. This was the “American Revolution.” The colonies even declared their independence from Great Britain in 1776.
France loses Quebec to the British, 1759 – part of the Seven Years’ War
France intervenes in American Revolution, and both nations break their peace treaty
But the surprises continued even further. The American “Patriot” side sought French assistance during this war of independence. After a much-publicized victory at Saratoga, France agreed to militarily intervene in the American Revolution. Thus, they would now help America against the British. King Louis the Sixteenth, along with his wife Marie Antoinette, must have seen a golden opportunity to get back at the British for the humiliating loss of Canada (among other things). In France’s treaty of alliance with the Americans, the Americans had promised not to make a separate peace with the British. But the French had also promised to support American independence, and yet they were soon willing to negotiate away this independence when talking to the British. That is, they were violating their end of that treaty of alliance with the Americans. Thus, the Americans were forced to make a separate peace with Britain after all. It was ambassador John Adams’ idea to do so. Our other ambassador Benjamin Franklin had been reluctant to agree to this, because of his sympathy for the French. But John Adams convinced Dr. Franklin that this course was necessary. The French were furious, but Benjamin Franklin soon managed to smooth things over with the French. Among other things, Franklin told the French king that this had been done out of a desire for America’s independence, not out of a lack of respect for King Louis. Franklin further said that the British might be “flattering” themselves that they had “disrupted” this alliance between France and America (to paraphrase what he said there). Thus, Franklin suggested, “let us strengthen our ties” (or words to that effect), so that the British may find themselves “completely” mistaken. Franklin even ended his letter with a request for more money. This request was soon accepted. Thus, the extraordinarily smooth operator had somehow managed to smooth things over with the French. In 1787, Benjamin Franklin attended the Constitutional Convention back in America (specifically, at Philadelphia). Franklin suggested to the other delegates that this new Constitution would astonish our enemies (namely, the British), who were waiting even now for our downfall. This may have convinced some of the other delegates to vote for the then-new United States Constitution.
French participation in the Siege of Yorktown, 1781
John Adams inherits tense relationship with France, with some interesting personal history
Soon after the new Constitution was ratified, George Washington was then elected as the president. He would be the first president of the United States. But the alliance with France was already beginning to break down. The French Revolution was now breaking out in France, and so was another French war with the British. Congress then suspended repayment of some of the loans from France. In this context, ambassador John Jay negotiated the “Jay Treaty” with the British (quoted above). Among other things, this involved some trade with the British. To put it bluntly, the French didn’t like this – they wanted no trade between America and Britain. France also believed that America’s treaty obligations obliged the United States to help France in the Caribbean. This may have been a stretch, but the French believed this. Because of these things, the French ambassadors were now openly making threats to President Washington. The first president refused to back down. This was the uncomfortable situation inherited by George Washington’s successor, John Adams – who would now be the second president. During the war, Mr. Adams had actually served alongside Benjamin Franklin as an ambassador to France. Mr. Adams had caused considerable friction with the French in this role. Then, in 1785, Adams had served as America’s postwar ambassador to Britain. As was customary for ambassadors in that time, Adams then approached King George the Third and bowed three times. As Wikipedia puts it, Mr. Adams then “promised to do all that he could to restore friendship and cordiality between people separated by an ocean and ‘have the same language, a similar religion and kindred blood.’ The king agreed and added that ‘while he had been the last to consent’ to American independence, he wished Adams to know that he had always done what he thought right and proper. [King George] inquired, ‘There is an opinion, among some people, that you are not the most attached of all your countrymen, to the manners of France.’ Adams replied, ‘That opinion sir, is not mistaken, I must avow to your Majesty, I have no attachments but to my own country.’ George responded, ‘An honest man will never have any other.’” (Source: Their page on the “Diplomacy of John Adams”)
Naval engagement in the Quasi-War, 1799
The “Quasi-War” itself, an undeclared naval war on the high seas (1798-1800)
Mr. Adams’ distrust of the French continued into his new presidency. Again, Adams inherited a somewhat tense situation from his predecessor George Washington. It started when French diplomats demanded bribes in the “XYZ affair.” And, again, this involved some French anger over the “Jay Treaty.” In 1798, that tension and anger then exploded into the “Quasi-War.” On the high seas, there was now an undeclared naval war between France and the United States. It wasn’t a big war, but it was still quite significant. Although it is mostly forgotten to history, it was of tremendous importance at that time. It had the potential to make America into an ally of the British, in the ongoing “French Revolutionary Wars.” In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte then became the new ruler of France, a sort of regime change. This ended the French Revolution. But Napoleon inherited France’s “Quasi-War” with the distant United States. It’s possible that President Adams wanted Bonaparte to reconcile with the Americans, so that Napoleon could free up the resources of France for fighting the British. But, sadly for Adams, this did not happen at that time. Thus, the “Quasi-War” on the high seas continued. Adams famously said that he wanted his tombstone simply to read: “John Adams: He kept the peace with France.” This may be why it was only a “quasi” war, rather than a full-scale war. But 1800 was an election year back in America. Thus, President Adams was now being challenged by his old friend (now bitter enemy) Thomas Jefferson. The country now watched to see what the incumbent president Mr. Adams would do, about the still-ongoing war with France. Eventually, President Adams was able to make a peace with Napoleon in 1800. But the news of the peace treaty arrived in the United States too late to affect the American elections. Thus, the presidential elections instead went to Mr. Adams’ challenger, Thomas Jefferson. A new era in American politics was about to begin.
The Chesapeake-Leopard Affair, 1807 – a precursor to the “War of 1812”
Jefferson negotiates Louisiana Purchase, and Madison fights “War of 1812” with Britain
In 1803, Jefferson was then able to negotiate the Louisiana Purchase with Napoleon’s France. Americans were already beginning to settle in the French-controlled region, which was to the west of the United States. And, more to the point, Napoleon then needed some cash to fight his war with the British (and others) in Europe. Mr. Jefferson thus doubled the American federal budget, possibly violating his own beliefs about “small government” in the process. But Jefferson had also doubled the size of the country by so doing. This was a major foreign policy success for the United States. However, the British were soon violating American sovereignty, through the policy of “impressment.” That is, they were drafting American sailors into the Royal Navy – an act of war that could not be responsibly ignored. With the help of Congress, President Jefferson then instituted an embargo upon both the British and the French. This was with the intention of keeping America out of the Napoleonic Wars, the latest stage of the war between Britain and France. But this embargo instead hurt the American economy. This is why I’m generally not a big fan of President Jefferson’s foreign policy, with the exception of the Louisiana Purchase. Regardless, Thomas Jefferson was soon succeeded by his former protégé James Madison. Soon afterwards, with Mr. Madison’s blessing, the United States Congress then declared war on Britain. This was the “War of 1812.” This meant, ironically, that the United States was again to be allied with their traditional enemy, the French. Napoleon Bonaparte, who had been America’s enemy during the earlier “Quasi-War,” was now our most important ally against the British. When Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo in 1815, the British made peace with the distant United States. Thus, the Napoleonic Wars (and our “War of 1812”) were now officially over.
The defense of Fort McHenry, 1814 – which inspired “The Star-Spangled Banner”
Britain and France ally with America in two world wars, and “Quasi-War” is forgotten
How is the war remembered (or, rather, forgotten) today? Some would credit France for helping to “liberate” the United States, during the earlier American Revolution. This seems to ignore that the French did so for their own reasons – namely, revenge against the British, for the loss of Canada (and other humiliations). Thus, it’s hard to credit King Louis the Sixteenth with any “genuine” concern for us. The “Quasi-War” itself makes this even harder. The British and the French actually considered ganging up on the young United States (and helping the Confederacy) during our Civil War. But, thankfully, this was narrowly averted by some diplomacy from the Abraham Lincoln administration. Some would further suggest that we now owe something of a “debt” to France. But, if so, this “debt” was paid over twice, during the First and Second World Wars. That is, America helped to liberate France from German rule … during both of these World Wars. They also fought alongside the British and the Canadians (among others) during both of these world wars. This was despite our countries having to fight the Vichy French (and support the Free French) during World War II. The United States became the first nation to get the bomb in 1945. The Soviet Union became the second nation in 1949, and the United Kingdom (Great Britain) became the third in 1952. In 1956, though, the prestige of both Britain and France declined somewhat after the Suez Crisis. French prestige was restored somewhat, though, when they became the fourth nation to get nuclear weapons in 1960. The Americans had actually tried to prevent France from getting nuclear weapons. Thus, President Charles de Gaulle declared that his country’s nuclear weapons could be fired “in all directions.” (see source) This somewhat disrupted the alliance between the United States and France. Thankfully, though, good relations have since been restored somewhat, even if the United States remains somewhat closer to the British today than it is to the French. There have been some other conflicts, in which the United States was allied with both Britain and France – such as the Korean War. And, despite some occasional tensions between our three nations, there has never been a full-scale war between any of the three since 1815. One hopes that we will continue to have consistently peaceful relations, with both the British and the French. And one hopes that there will never again be anything … like the prior “Quasi-War” between our two peoples.
Free French generals (including de Gaulle) with FDR and Churchill – Casablanca, 1943
“There shall be a firm, inviolable, and universal peace, and a true and sincere friendship between the French Republic, and the United States of America, and between their respective countries territories, cities, towns, and people without exception of persons, or places.”
“Commerce between the parties shall be free. The vessels of the two nations, and their privateers, as well as their prizes, shall be treated in the respective ports, as those of the nation the most favoured; and in general the two parties shall enjoy in the ports of each other, in regard to commerce, and navigation, the priviledges of the most favoured nation.”
– Articles I and VI of the “Convention of 1800” between Napoleon Bonaparte and President John Adams, which formally ended the undeclared “Quasi-War”
If you liked this post, you might also like:
Posts
No comments:
Post a Comment