Why I’m glad that I learned Spanish

“Se habla español.” (“We speak Spanish.”)

– A phrase used by businesses in parts of the United States (including here in the Southwest)

Anecdote about immersing myself in Hispanic culture (which I can’t do with ancient cultures)

This might seem a strange way to begin a blog post about Spanish – but I’ve been learning Biblical Hebrew and Greek for some years now. Because of this, I’ve actually been able to read some parts of the Bible in the original Hebrew. I’ve sometimes wished that I could get off the plane, and step into the cultures of both Biblical Hebrew and Greek. For example, I’ve sometimes wished that I could have a conversation in one (or even both) of these two dead languages. Of course, I’ve never actually been able to do so, because I live in the twenty-first century. There are such languages as modern Hebrew and Greek, but the ancient forms of these languages died out many centuries ago. However, I do have some modern languages alongside of the ancient ones. And one of these modern languages, as it turns out, is Spanish. I live in the Southwestern United States, so Hispanic culture is all around me here. It can be found in things from the local Spanish place names, to the remarkable Mexican food that so many of us eat here. Indeed, this is one of the few cultures that I can actually step into while staying here in my Arizona hometown. This is one of the reasons that I’ve long been glad that I learned some Spanish. I wouldn’t even need to purchase a plane ticket, to be able to put this language into practice. I can do so right here at home, without even having to leave town. With Spanish, I got my wish, and was actually able to get some firsthand experience of the culture for myself.

Great image of a carne asada burrito from Wikipedia

How the Seven Years’ War spilled over into Latin America

The Seven Years’ War was fought on five different continents. Thus, it was a massive worldwide conflict (as I argue elsewhere). It started out in the frontier of North America, but soon drew in many of the mother countries from back in Europe. From there, the conflict would then spread to West Africa, to the Indian subcontinent, and to the Philippine Islands. But it would also be fought in a couple of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies of South America. Specifically, it would be expressed there, as part of a forgotten conflict called the “Fantastic War.” This part is sometimes called the “First Cevallos expedition.” This is basically the Latin American theater of the Seven Years’ War. You could even regard it as the Seven Years’ War spilling over into Latin America. The “Fantastic War” (and this portion thereof) are mostly forgotten to history, but the conflict may have set the stage for the later Latin American wars of independence. Thus, it may behoove us to look for a moment at this forgotten (and important) conflict in this post. This will tell us much about the great European colonies in Latin America.

The captured Spanish fleet at Havana (Cuba, 1762) – during the Anglo-Spanish War

Some medieval pros and cons: Striking a “middle” course with the Middle Ages

Two possible extremes of the Middle Ages: romanticizing them, and demonizing them

The Middle Ages remain a source of enduring interest today, but they are also the center of a great international debate. One side seems to romanticize the Middle Ages, based on things like the chivalry and the various kinds of art. The other side seeks to demonize and dismiss the Middle Ages, based on things like the superstition and the great brutality. Few periods in European history are as hard for people in the modern West to understand as the thousand-year Middle Ages. In some ways, the Middle Ages may (in fact) be the most alien period of such length in all of Western history. But it would be a mistake to throw out the baby with the bathwater. The Middle Ages also produced some fantastic art, architecture, music, and literature – inspired by the fervent faith of the era. It also produced some great religious philosophers – such as St. Augustine, Duns Scotus, and St. Thomas Aquinas in the Christian world. Elsewhere, it also produced Maimonides in Judaism, and Avicenna and Averroes in the Islamic world. And the Middle Ages even produced some great science (more about that here) – more science than most people today might realize. Much of this was centered around the Islamic world, but some of it also came from Catholic Europe. Thus, we continue to try to come to terms with the complex history of the Middle Ages, and the relative degree of good and evil therein. Thus, this post will try to examine some of the pros and cons of the Middle Ages, and how some of them continue to affect how people today see this period.

Byzantine Church mosaics, Monreale, Sicily, late 12th century

Why does the Declaration of Independence list so many grievances?

“Whereas many of our subjects in divers parts of our colonies and plantations in North America … have at length proceeded to open and avowed rebellion, by arraying themselves in a hostile manner, to withstand the execution of the law, and traitorously preparing, ordering and levying war against us: And whereas, there is reason to apprehend that such rebellion hath been much promoted and encouraged by the traitorous correspondence, counsels and comfort of divers wicked and desperate persons within this realm: To the end therefore, that none of our subjects may neglect or violate their duty through ignorance thereof, or through any doubt of the protection which the law will afford to their loyalty and zeal, we have thought fit, by and with the advice of our Privy Council, to issue our Royal Proclamation …”

– The “Proclamation of Rebellion” by King George the Third (23 August 1775)

In the eighteenth century, Americans had strong disagreements about colonial grievances

We today remember the Declaration of Independence for its ideas, and it is right that we do so. But, surprisingly, it was most famous in its own time … for the list of colonial grievances. To the people of that time, the list of grievances was the most important part, and certainly the most interesting. The grievances addressed the fiery controversies of the day, about whether the king had broken his end of a social contract with the people. Some American Loyalists actually agreed with the idea that the king had done some terrible things to the American colonies. Many of them even agreed that, if these provocations were indeed bad enough, rebellion would indeed be justified. But they needed to be convinced that the provocations were indeed bad enough to justify this radical course of action.

Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration of Independence

Jainism and Sikhism: Two of the minority religions of India

“The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them.”

– Part III, Article 15 of the current Constitution of India – which came into force in the year 1950

India has one billion people. Thus, even the country’s minority religions can be big ones …

India has more than one billion people. Some even believe that it may have overtaken China as the most populous nation in the world. If not, it is easily still the second most populous. Thus, even the country’s minority religions can be big ones today. Hinduism, as you may know, is the largest religion in India today. Nearly 80% of the country are Hindus, according to an Indian census in 2011. The second largest religion in India today, as it turns out, is Islam. Nearly 15% of the country are Muslims. It would probably be even more, if you were to include nearby Pakistan and Bangladesh – both of which were once parts of British India, along with what is today “India.” If you do the math, these two religions alone would thus account for more than 90% of the current population of India. But what about the rest of the country? The third largest religion there is Christianity, with roughly 2% of the country. The influence of prior British colonization may help to explain this Christian segment somewhat. But here, I will be focusing on two lesser-known religions, whose very names are often unknown to many of my fellow Americans. Thus, in the interest of education, I would like to focus on Jainism and Sikhism, two of the important minority religions of India. I will start here by talking about Jainism.

Guru Nanak explaining Sikh teachings to Sadhus

How the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars changed Europe

“His majesty the king of Prussia cedes … all the territories and domains, and all territorial property of whatever kind, or by whatever title possessed, by his majesty the king of Prussia, between the Rhine and the Elbe, at the commencement of the present war … The kingdom of Westphalia shall consist of the provinces ceded by his majesty the king of Prussia, and of other states which are at present in possession of his majesty the emperor Napoleon … His majesty the king of Prussia cedes the circle of Kotbus, in Lower Lusatia, to his majesty the king of Saxony, with full right of proprietorship and sovereignty.”

– “Treaty of Tilsit, 9 July 1807” (specifically, Articles VII, VIII, and XII), between Napoleon Bonaparte of France and King Frederick William the Third of Prussia

During the French Revolution, at least 40,000 of the French people were executed by the guillotine. These eventually included King Louis the Sixteenth, and his wife Marie Antoinette. They even include a few of the Revolution’s leaders, such as Maximilien Robespierre. Eventually, the French Revolution was sucking much of the rest of Europe into the French Revolutionary Wars. At least half a million people died in this earlier conflict, which lasted for a decade. It was soon followed by the Napoleonic Wars, whose death toll proved even higher. (More about that later.) Like its predecessor, this conflict also lasted for a decade. These conflicts would be fought in Egypt, the Middle East, India, the East Indies, North America, South America, the Caribbean islands, and many of the world’s oceans and seas. But it would also involve countless battles on the European continent. The legacy of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars … has always been somewhat complicated. But it’s also extremely interesting, with many dramatic moments. Many of them shaped the course of history. Thus, this might be a good time to examine the general legacy of this period. I will try to show how these wars helped to shape Europe. But, through Europe, this conflict also affected many of Europe’s former colonies, in many different parts of the world.

Entry of Napoleon into Berlin – Prussia, 1806

The rise and fall of the “British Raj” in India

Note: This post is primarily focused on the post-1858 “British Raj” – that is, on things after the 1850s “Indian Rebellion.” Things before that will be discussed in a later post. (Warning: This post contains some disturbing pictures.)

One of the most controversial topics in the entire history of the British Empire …

The war that turned India into a longtime British colony … arguably began in distant North America. It was called the “French and Indian War,” and it began in colonial Pennsylvania in 1754 – with an incident that involved George Washington. In 1756, the war soon spread to Europe, as the “Seven Years’ War” officially began. And, in 1757, the war then fatefully spread to the massive Indian subcontinent in South Asia. The war’s fighting in India is now known to history as the “Third Carnatic War.” In the First and Second Carnatic Wars (in some prior decades), the European powers had been fighting among themselves to control the Indian subcontinent. These powers had even included the French, who had some local colonization plans of their own. But the British were now determined to kick the French out of India for good. And, in 1757, the British began to do so at the fateful Battle of Plassey.

Lord Clive meeting with Mir Jafar after the Battle of Plassey, 1757

How our Founding Fathers fought the Barbary Pirates

“[The Congress shall have the power] To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations …”

– Article 1, Section 8, Paragraph 10 of the United States Constitution – ratified in 1787, during the American-Algerian War

Militarily speaking, the Founding Fathers are most famous today for fighting the British. During the American Revolution, they fought to become independent from Great Britain. But, when four of our Founding Fathers became presidents, they had to deal with the Barbary Pirates. These were a group of (mostly Muslim) pirates from distant North Africa. Many of them would capture Christians, and sell them into slavery. Thus, it’s a small wonder that the Barbary Pirates would become somewhat unpopular in America (not to mention elsewhere) as a result. This post will thus tell the forgotten story of the Barbary Wars. But, in order to understand them, we must understand the Barbary Pirates themselves. And it turns out that their story goes back for many centuries.

An Algerine pirate ship, during the prior actions of the Barbary Pirates

Why is French spoken on five different continents? (Answer: History)

Spanish and Portuguese are found mainly in the Americas today, but French is spread out

You might already know that Spanish and Portuguese both have far more native speakers than French. With 250 million native speakers, Portuguese is the fifth-most-spoken language in the world by this measure. And, with 480 million native speakers, Spanish is the second-most-spoken language in the world by this measure. (Only Mandarin Chinese has more.) Both of them attained this status by aggressive colonization in past centuries. Obviously, both of them originated in Europe, on the Iberian Peninsula – which includes both Spain and Portugal. But, outside of Europe, Spanish and Portuguese are each spoken mainly in the Americas. Portuguese has a strong presence in South America through Brazil. Spanish has a strong presence in North America through Mexico. And Spanish is, of course, spoken in Central America and South America as well – not to mention the Caribbean. With the exception of some Portuguese colonies in Africa, both are fairly rare on other non-European continents.

One group of King’s Daughters arrives at Quebec – French Canada, 1667

The “Quasi-War”: The only war between France and the United States

“There shall be a firm inviolable and universal peace, and a true and sincere friendship between His Britannick Majesty, his heirs and successors, and the United States of America; and between their respective countries, territories, cities, towns and people of every degree, without exception of persons or places.”

“It is agreed between His [Britannick] Majesty and the United States of America, that there shall be a reciprocal and entirely perfect liberty of navigation and commerce, between their respective people, in the manner, under the limitations, and on the conditions specified in the following articles.”

– Articles 1 and 11 of the Jay Treaty (signed in 1794, and proclaimed in 1796), as negotiated by ambassador John Jay under President George Washington – which angered the French enough for France to fight the “Quasi-War” with the United States

That time that the United States went to war with France (sort of)

You might already know that the American colonies rebelled against Britain, in our “Revolutionary War.” You might further know that we fought against Britain again during our “War of 1812.” In both of these wars, we were thus allied with distant France. Thus, many Americans would feel some degree of “gratitude” to France for helping us with these wars. But the situation may actually be a little more complicated. In the late eighteenth century, we fought a small (but still important) war with France on the high seas. This is a lesser-known conflict, which was between the American Revolution and the War of 1812. During this conflict, we had to make some difficult choices about whom we would choose as allies. And we had to make some equally difficult choices … about whom we would choose as our enemies. Had the war gone a little differently, our “War of 1812” might have instead been against France – and who knows what the war’s consequences would have been in that case? This had the potential to change American history, if it had been navigated a little less delicately.

Fire at Port-Royal following Samuel Argall’s attack – French Acadia, 1613

A review of Ken Burns’ “The American Revolution” (PBS)

“But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government.”

– The United States Declaration of Independence (July 4th, 1776)

My prior concerns about this series, and how my hopes for this series were restored

When I first saw Ken Burns’ prior series “The Civil War,” I was mesmerized by it. I still consider it to be among the greatest series ever made, of any kind. And, in many ways, I was looking forward to seeing Ken Burns’ coverage of the American Revolution as well. But I confess that I also had some concerns about how he would cover this massive (and important) topic. These concerns were partially stoked by his biographical film about Thomas Jefferson, which could almost be described as a hatchet job. The film had so much coverage of his slaveholding, and his relationship with Sally Hemings (both legitimate topics), that it drowned out his considerable role in drafting the Declaration of Independence. But, thankfully, my confidence in Ken Burns’ coverage was restored somewhat, when I saw his biographical film about Benjamin Franklin. This proved far more sympathetic, and gave me hope that he would cover the American Revolution in a (somewhat) more sympathetic light. Ken Burns definitely covers the slavery issues, and he also covers the comparable issues surrounding Native American involvement. Both of these receive a lot of time in this series. But he also shows that the British were willing to sacrifice Black and Native American interests to their own war aims, even if they still tended to offer a better deal to these two ethnic groups than the Patriot side did. And he shows that there were many Blacks and Native Americans who fought for the Patriot side, even if there were still far more of them who fought for the British and Loyalist side.

Why there are still American Revolution and Civil War buffs

“And there was Cap’n Washington,

And gentle folks about him;

They say he’s grown so ‘tarnal proud

He will not ride without ‘em.

Yankee Doodle keep it up,

Yankee Doodle dandy,

Mind the music and the step,

And with the girls be handy.”

– “Yankee Doodle,” written in 1755 – although some verses (like the one before the famous chorus above) were later added, when this became the first American patriotic song

Our Revolution and Civil War (particularly the latter) receive much interest in America …

This might seem a strange way to begin a blog post about these American topics … but, in nearby Canada, people strongly remember the “Seven Years’ War,” including the portion known to Americans as the “French and Indian War.” Canadians also strongly remember the War of 1812 – in which they fought against the United States. But Canadians usually forget the American Revolution (where they had been fighting against the Americans), and the American Civil War (which coincided with the peaceful Confederation period in Canada). Conversely, Americans usually forget the “Seven Years’ War” (including the “French and Indian War” portion thereof), and they usually forget the War of 1812 as well. But the American Revolution is considered a big deal here in the United States, and so (to an even greater degree) is the American Civil War. Why is this? Why are there still many American Revolution buffs here – and why is our Civil War still one of the most popular historical topics in the United States? And why do these subjects remain important today, all of these years after both of these conflicts ended – one in 1865, and the other even earlier in 1783? These are the questions that this post will try to explore. I will try to show how both of these subjects can shed some light on the American identity – by telling us who we are as Americans. They are related to promises about liberty and equality, and what they mean for Americans today. To some extent, this may explain why Americans are still interested in these conflicts today.

Washington and Lafayette at Valley Forge

How decades of conflicts sucked Europe into the Great War

Germans annex the Alsace-Lorraine region, and Germany becomes a unified nation

In 1870, France declared war on Prussia, in an attempt to assert its dominance over the continent of Europe. They soon invaded German territory, and seemed to do well for a period of some two days. But the Germans soon counterattacked, and were routing the French before too long. After some months, the German troops made it all the way to Paris, eventually causing the war to end in 1871. The Franco-Prussian War, as it is now called, had profound consequences for the continent of Europe. It enabled the Germans to annex Alsace-Lorraine, which would be a thorn in Franco-German relations during both of the upcoming world wars. And, even more importantly, it completed the process of unifying the German states into a single nation. That is, the process was completed in 1871. Some would date this as the beginning of the road to the Great War. This road would have a seminal effect upon both of the upcoming world wars. In this post, I will try to examine a series of minor wars and crises that (arguably) led up to World War One. Their effect seems to be far more than the sum of their parts, because they eventually caused Europe to explode … into the truly “Great War.”

Prussian field artillery column at Torcy – France, 1870

A review of “The Korean War” (audiobook)

In 1950, the Cold War suddenly became hot. North Korea launched a full-scale invasion of South Korea. The Korean War would soon draw in nations from throughout the world. 33,000 Americans died in battle in Korea. When you include people who died in prison camps, or who simply froze to death, the total American deaths go up even higher to 54,000. How did the Korean Peninsula become the epicenter of a raging storm? How did that storm suck in the United States and its various allies? And what was the ultimate legacy of the Korean War? These are the questions that a brief (but entertaining) audiobook tries to answer. They examine the philosophies of both sides, and the series of events that pulled the war-weary free world into yet another conflict.

A review of Andrew Marr’s “History of the World” (BBC)

Before watching this film, I had enjoyed watching Andrew Marr’s “Modern Britain” series, which covered the period from 1901 to 2007. More to the point, I greatly enjoyed the presenting style of Andrew Marr himself, since he often has an amusing (and even hilarious) way of putting things. Nonetheless, I initially resisted getting Andrew Marr’s “History of the World.” I suppose that I was skeptical of doing the entire “History of the World” in just eight hours. I had already learned from other histories that covered specific parts of the world in more detail. I especially knew the history of the West quite well, but also had a basic understanding of some of the other major world cultures – even though I still (admittedly) lack knowledge of many others. But, as Andrew Marr says in this film’s introduction, it can help to have the big picture in mind. This “big picture” can allow you to make some connections between the different times and places. It allows you to synthesize many of the different pieces into a coherent narrative. For example, by surveying the different topics, you can find important differences among the stories of diverse cultures. You can also find the commonalities that tie them together. Thus, I would like to offer my review of this series, for any that are interested. I will start with one of the weakest episodes, which is the very first episode. Then I will transition into covering some of the better stuff in the later episodes.

The American Revolutionary War was fought on four different continents

Even many British histories of the war tend (understandably) to gloss over this subject

In the eighteenth century, the British Empire was the most powerful nation in the world. It had a powerful army and navy, and controlled massive amounts of territory. It greatly outnumbered the American rebels, and even had many American Loyalists on its side. Thus, one might have expected the British military to win the day in this struggle. Yet, at the end of this conflict, the British permanently lost their thirteen American colonies. Why is this? Many explanations have been proposed, such as the poor decision-making on the part of their military leaders – and I should acknowledge that this was indeed a factor. Other factors have also been cited, such as the British failure to win the hearts and minds of the American people. But, for many historians, one factor stands out above all of the rest. This was the series of alliances between the American rebels and certain of the major European powers. The most famous of these alliances is probably that which the Americans would form with the French. However, the Spanish and the Dutch would also eventually be joining the war on the American side. The British even had to face a few enemies in India, and fight a world war in many different places.

The Royal Navy relief at the Great Siege of Gibraltar – Europe, 1782

Thus, here’s the part of the American Revolution that your history classes never told you

The standard histories of the American Revolution usually avoid covering these things, or mention them only in passing. Even Richard Holmes’ “Rebels & Redcoats: How Britain Lost America” focuses almost entirely on the North American campaigns. Thus, Mr. Holmes only covers the French participation … when it becomes relevant to these more prominent campaigns in North America. For example, Holmes covers the naval battle of the Chesapeake, which was off of the coast of Virginia. Mr. Holmes also covers the French participation in the final battle at Yorktown, which was on land. But campaigns elsewhere in the world are mentioned only in passing in his own history. Therefore, even many of the standard British histories have tended to pass over this turbulent international context. This is understandable, because the campaigns in North America have tended to be the most prominent – even for the British. But their wars elsewhere in the world saw some ferocious battles and campaigns for the British, and a clash of empires on a massive scale. Indeed, the war was actually fought on four different continents. Thus, I would like here to dive into the Revolution’s fascinating international context. In so doing, I will try to offer my own perspective … on why America was ever able to gain her independence, at this time or at any other. This will also help to explain why the mighty British Empire ultimately lost the American Revolution.

A British sortie in the Great Siege of Gibraltar – Europe, 1781

How historical context can shed light on World War II

World War II was the largest conflict in history. It tore the continent of Europe apart, both during the war and in its immediate aftermath. Millions had been mowed down in battlefields from Normandy to Stalingrad to Iwo Jima. Others had been murdered in the Holocaust, or in prison camps in Soviet Russia or Imperial Japan. Still others had been killed in the bombing campaigns, from London and Warsaw to Berlin and Hiroshima. A standard estimate is that 50 million people died as a direct result of World War II, or in war-related famines. At the end, the seeds of a future Cold War had been sown, as Germany (and particularly Berlin) were divided. The conflicts in Europe were not over – nor were those in Asia, which would see further shooting wars in Korea and Vietnam in the coming decades. Thus, why did the upheavals of World War II happen? What explains the awful carnage, in this war or in the other brutal wars that have racked humanity throughout its history? The answer is both complicated and simple: historical context. Many people naturally grasp the idea that prior context is relevant – whether in historical pursuits, or in other areas of life. But how far back do you have to go to find the answers? What kinds of context shed light on things, and what others fail to do so? And how can historical context help us to make some sense out of major events – events that are both complicated and multi-faceted? (And that includes virtually everything in history, because that’s just the nature of life itself.)

American tank incinerates Japanese pillbox with a flame thrower – Saipan, 1944

These are the kinds of questions that I will try to answer in this post. I will be focusing primarily on World War II here, because popular knowledge of this subject makes it somewhat easier to illustrate my points with some related stories and anecdotes from this conflict. So, without further ado, let’s dive into the importance of historical context, and how it can allow us to make some sense out of the most complicated events of history.

Soviets preparing to ward off a German attack in Stalingrad’s suburbs

A review of “World War II” (audiobook)

I should preface this review by saying that I’ve seen a number of other great histories of World War II. For example, I’ve seen the American perspective covered in Ken Burns’ 15-hour series “The War” (made for PBS). I’ve seen other series that cover the Canadian and Australian perspectives respectively. I’ve seen the so-called “BBC History of World War II” – which, despite its inaccurate name, is still quite good. And I’ve seen the 23-hour British miniseries “The World at War.” This may be the most comprehensive television history of World War II. Thus, I’ve seen a number of other great histories of World War II. The “BBC History of World War II” has a fantastic program on the causes of the war, and another giving in-depth coverage of the Holocaust. But the primary focus of the BBC is on the combat of the war itself. Many of these series were able to interview eyewitnesses and participants, which adds another dynamic to the various documentaries.

What was the “Hundred Years’ War”? (Depends on which one you mean)

There are a few candidates for this name, all of them involving Britain and France

You might already know that the Normans invaded England in 1066 – now the most famous year in English history. The Norman rulers seem to have been genetically Scandinavian, rather than French. That is, they seem to have been of Viking stock. But these Norman rulers had been living in France for a few generations. Thus, they and their followers were all native speakers of French. They soon came to impose the French language and laws on the people of England, as well as a few other parts of Britain. This explains why the English language has so many French loanwords in its vocabulary. Scholars estimate that perhaps 30% of Modern English words are of French origin (usually Norman French origin). Another 30% come directly from the related language of Latin. The first war between England and France seems to have begun in 1109. In that same century, the Norman reign in England gave way to another French-speaking dynasty: the Plantagenet dynasty. The Plantagenet rulers would also remain French-speaking for the next few centuries. (But that’s a story for another post.) England and France would be at each other’s throats, on and off, for many centuries to come. Not all of their wars are today considered a part of some “Hundred Years’ War” or other. But all of the candidates for the name of “Hundred Years’ War” involved France and England – or, in later centuries, France and Great Britain. By examining those three conflicts that are candidates for this name, we may learn something about the centuries-long struggle between the French and the English, and why they still have some amount of rivalry today – although it’s now more good-natured.

Battle of Bouvines, 1214 – part of the “First” Hundred Years’ War

The Thirty Years’ War was intertwined with many other conflicts

The Thirty Years’ War eventually claimed at least four million lives …

It was one of the most destructive wars in European history. The Thirty Years’ War eventually claimed at least four million lives. It was part of the European wars of religion, which arose in the wake of the Protestant Reformation. Several wars which began long before it, and several other wars which ended long after its termination, would eventually become connected with the massive “Thirty Years’ War.” This means that it was part of a series of conflicts that rocked the European world – and some of them spilled over into other parts of the world as well. Thus, this might be a good time to look at a few of these forgotten conflicts, and what they can tell us about early modern Europe. Some of these conflicts began back during the Renaissance and the Reformation, while others continued into the Age of Enlightenment. But all of them would leave casualties behind them, leaving a trail of destruction from one end of the Continent to the other.

Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden at the Battle of Breitenfeld, 1631 – part of the Thirty Years’ War

The Sack of Magdeburg, 1631 – part of the Thirty Years’ War